1 The Environmental Effects of Forced Displacement in Burma's Karenni State Brandon MacDonald Student Number: 996 401 086 B.Sc. International Developmental Studies Co-op email: [email protected] Thesis Supervisor: Professor M. Isaac Personnel Number: 1042359 Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences & International Developmental Studies email: [email protected] Submission Date: April 18, 2012 2 Acknowledgements This thesis was a collaborative eFfort. My co-workers at Karenni Evergreen stimulated and challenged my thinking on issues surrounding the displacement of the Karenni people and the impact that this has had on environmental issues. They helped me find direction in my research and guided my data gathering process. They played an integral role in identifying the participants for my research. I am especially indebted to my good friend, roommate and co- worker Khu Kyi Reh who acted as a translator during many of the interviews. The participants gave generously of their time and their thoughts. Throughout this process Professor Marney Isaac was an engaged and thoughtful supporter. I am grateful for her input through both the research and the writing phases of this thesis. Lastly, I wish to acknowledge the help of my good friend Taskin Shiraze and my parents for their feedback on my written work. 3 Table of Contents List of Acronyms ............................................................................................................... 4 Abstract .............................................................................................................................. 5 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 A Brief History 1.1.1 The Colonial Era ................................................................................ 8 1.1.2 The Democratic Era ........................................................................... 9 1.1.3 The Ne Win Era 1962 − 1988 ............................................................ 10 1.1.4 SPDC Rule 1988 − 2011 ....................................................................10 1.1.5 The SaFfron Revolution and the Elections in 2010............................. 11 1.2 The Current Situation ....................................................................................... 12 1.3 Literature Review on the Environmental Issues of Displacement ................... 12 1.3.1 Land Degradation............................................................................... 13 1.3.2 Natural Resource Depletion .............................................................. 14 1.3.3 Environmental Management Problems Driven by the Concentration of People ...................................................... 16 1.3.4 Loss of Traditional Environmental Protection Mechanisms ............. 17 1.3.5 Environmental Exploitation through Macro-Development Projects 18 1.3.6 Exchange of Environmental Knowledge Through Migration ........... 19 1.4.1 Research Problem .............................................................................. 20 1.4.2 Research Question and Objectives .................................................... 22 Chapter 2: Methods 2.1 Study Area ........................................................................................................ 25 2.2 Study Samples .................................................................................................. 26 2.3 Data Collection ................................................................................................ 27 2.4 Methods for Gathering Information ................................................................. 29 2.5 Data Analysis Procedures ................................................................................. 30 2.6 Reasons for Displacement ................................................................................ 31 2.6.1 The Four-Cuts Policy ......................................................................... 32 2.6.2 Fleeing Poverty, Violence, and Human Rights Violations ................. 33 2.6.3 Land Seizures for Macro-Development Projects ............................... 34 2.7 Living Situations ...............................................................................................35 2.7.1 Relocation .......................................................................................... 36 2.7.2 Villages Where Participants had Kinship Ties ................................... 37 2.7.3 Newly Formed Villages ..................................................................... 37 2.7.4 Migrant Settlements Constantly Fleeing Violence ............................ 38 2.7.5 Refugee Camps .................................................................................. 39 2.8 Temporal Categorizations of Displacement ..................................................... 40 Chapter 3: Results and Discussion 3.1 Socio-Demographics of Participants ................................................................ 41 3.2 Land Degradation and Management ................................................................ 43 3.2.1 Fertilizer Use Dynamics .................................................................... 45 3.2.2 The Dynamics of Other Agricultural Inputs ...................................... 47 3.2.3 Plot Size Dynamics ........................................................................... 48 3.2.4 Changes in the Number of Harvests Per Year ................................... 49 3.2.5 Crop Diversification .......................................................................... 51 4 3.2.6 Fallow Periods ................................................................................... 52 3.2.7 Land Tenure ....................................................................................... 54 3.2.8 Community Exchange of Land Management Information ................ 55 3.2.9 Summary on Land Degradation ......................................................... 56 3.3 Food Security ....................................................................................................57 3.3.1 Drivers of Food Insecurity ................................................................. 58 3.3.2 Strategies Implemented in Situations of Food Insecurity .................. 60 3.3.3 Generation of Economic Vulnerability by Political Organizations ... 62 3.4 Natural Resource Depletion ..............................................................................65 3.4.1 Deforestation ...........................................................................................69 3.4.2 Environmental Management ...................................................................73 3.4.3 The Role of Animist Religion in Environmental Management .............. 75 3.4.4 Summary on Displacement's EFfect on Natural Resource Depletion ..... 79 3.5 Environmental Recovery of Abandoned Areas .................................................80 3.5.1 Waste Management ................................................................................. 82 Chapter 4: Conclusions 4.1 Final thoughts ................................................................................................... 85 4.2 Areas for Further Research .............................................................................. 89 References .......................................................................................................................... 91 List of Acronyms Association of South East Asian Nations ASEAN Community Based Organization CBO International Rescue Committee IRC Karenni National Political Party KNPP Non Governmental Organizations NGO State Law and Order Restoration Council SLORC State Peace and Development Council SPDC Thailand Burma Boarder Consortium TBBC Union Solidarity and Development Party USDP United Nations High Commission for Refugees UNHCR 5 Abstract Displaced Karenni people on the Thai-Burma boarder were interviewed to investigate the environmental eFfects of conflict-based displacement on the Karenni's traditional knowledge and livelihoods strategies. As a framework for analysis the reasons for displacement were categorized. Living situations were categorized in terms of the characteristics of a location, and in terms of the sequential stage of displacement (ie. point of origin, second location, third location and refugee camp). Results were mixed. It was found that refugee camps, second and third locations had fewer natural resources which Karenni people depend upon, higher levels of deforestation, lower levels of food security, higher levels of human rights violations leading to poverty, fewer policies and systems in place to protect the environment, and, in some cases, shorter agricultural fallow periods. Refugee camps faced unique environmental problems especially with waste management. There was not found to be an increase in environmental knowledge exchange with migration. It was also found that many areas which had been abandoned due to displacement had their environments degraded and natural resources exploited by government or private companies carrying out macro-development project or logging operations. The high density of populations in the refugee camp, second and third locations led to an exhaustion of natural resources and agricultural land. Poverty was exacerbated by displacement. It led to a dependance on unsustainable income generating activities, and undermined the Karenni people's ability to adapt to new environmental challenges. Displacement also removed traditional environmental protection mechanisms. On the other hand,