Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches W. Lawrence Neuman Seventh Edition ISBN 10: 1-292-02023-7 ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02023-5 Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM20 2JE England and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsoned.co.uk © Pearson Education Limited 2014 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affi liation with or endorsement of this book by such owners. ISBN 10: 1-292-02023-7 ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02023-5 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Printed in the United States of America 1251652012452813153673934312555911 PEARSON C U S T OM LIBRAR Y Table of Contents 1. Why Do Research? W. Lawrence Neuman 1 2. What Are the Major Types of Social Research? W. Lawrence Neuman 25 3. Theory and Research W. Lawrence Neuman 55 4. The Meanings of Methodology W. Lawrence Neuman 91 5. How to Review the Literature Review and Conduct Ethical Studies W. Lawrence Neuman 125 6. Strategies of Research Design W. Lawrence Neuman 165 7. Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement W. Lawrence Neuman 201 8. Qualitative and Quantitative Sampling W. Lawrence Neuman 245 9. Experimental Research W. Lawrence Neuman 281 10. Survey Research W. Lawrence Neuman 315 11. Nonreactive Research and Secondary Analysis W. Lawrence Neuman 367 12. Analysis of Quantitative Data W. Lawrence Neuman 393 13. Field Research and Focus Group Research W. Lawrence Neuman 431 I 477513547587 14. Analysis of Qualitative Data W. Lawrence Neuman 477 15. Writing the Research Report and the Politics of Social Research W. Lawrence Neuman 513 16. Bibliography W. Lawrence Neuman 547 Index 587 II Why Do Research? Alternatives to Social Science Research Steps in the Research Process What Research Involves—A Scientific Why Learn How to Conduct Social Approach Research? Varieties of Social Research Conclusion The sociologist, then, is someone concerned with understanding society in a disciplined way. The nature of this discipline is scientific. This means that what the sociologist finds and says about the social phenomena he studies occurs within a certain rather strictly defined frame of reference. —Peter Berger, An Invitation to Sociology, p. 16 I wrote this text to help you learn about how social ers, managers, administrators, officials, service scientists do research and so you can conduct your providers, health care professionals, and others use own studies. I consider two main issues in this chap- its findings and principles. They use them to raise ter: why you should learn about doing social re- children, reduce crime, manage health concerns, search and the basics of what social science research sell products or services, digest news events, and so is all about. forth. There is little doubt about the importance and Social science research is pervasive, and it af- centrality of social science research. Despite scat- fects your daily life as well as that of your family, tered criticism to the contrary, research is highly rel- friends, neighbors, and co-workers. Findings from evant for understanding social life generally and to social science studies appear on broadcast news pro- the decisions you make each day. grams, in magazines and newspapers, and on many To see the practical relevance of social research, Web sites and blogs. They cover dozens of topics let us consider a couple raising a three-year-old and fields: law and public safety, schooling, health child. One study (Wrigley and Derby, 2005) found care, personal and family relations, political issues, that paid child care is quite safe but also discovered and business activities as well as international and striking differences in fatality rates across various social trends. We use the knowledge and principles types of care. Center-based care is far safer than of social science research, directly or indirectly, as care provided in private homes. Another study we engage in relationships with family, friends, and (Bridges et al., 2007) showed that center-based co-workers, participate in community life or public care significantly raises a child’s reading and policy, and make daily decisions in business, pro- math scores, but it has a negative effect on socio- fessional life, and health care. Social research is not behavioral measures (e.g., the child exhibits less just for college classrooms and professors; high cooperation, more aggression). Children who start school teachers, parents, business owners, advertis- at ages two to three get the largest benefit rather From Chapter 1 of Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 7/e. W. Lawrence Neuman. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education. Published by Allyn & Bacon. All rights reserved. 1 WHY DO RESEARCH? than younger or older children. Active parental Reading and doing social research can be ex- involvement with a child lessens any negative be- citing: It is a process of discovery in which we learn havioral consequences from child care. Another many new things. Doing social science research re- study (Love et al., 2003) showed that child care quires persistence, personal integrity, tolerance for centers vary widely in quality. Quality of care ambiguity, interaction with others, and pride in makes a bigger difference than amount of time in doing top-quality work. It also requires logical care or whether parents or a care center is provid- thinking, carefully following rules, and repeating ing the care. Another study (Sosinsky, Lord, and steps over and again. In the research process, we Zigler, 2007) learned that care center quality was join theories or ideas with facts in a systematic way. generally higher in nonprofit, nonreligiously affil- We also use our creativity. To conduct a study, we iated centers than other types. Based on these find- must organize and plan. We need to select research ings, a couple may decide to look for a specific type methods appropriate to a specific question. We must of child care center, devote time to checking into always treat the study participants in an ethical or the quality of care it offers, and make special ef- moral way. In addition, we need to communicate to forts to encourage their child’s social skill devel- others how we conducted a study and what we opment. The studies are not only relevant for learned from it. specific parents but also have implications for pub- In this chapter, we consider some alternatives lic policy and how a community addresses child to social science research and why research is pre- care issues. ferred. We next examine how the enterprise of sci- Social science research yields valuable infor- entific research works, including the steps in doing mation and expands our understanding, but it is not a research study and types of social science studies. 100 percent foolproof. It does not guarantee perfect results every time or offer “absolute truth.” This may be why some people distrust research-based knowl- ALTERNATIVES TO SOCIAL edge or why some people, including a few media SCIENCE RESEARCH commentators, even ridicule professional re- In this section, we look at four commonly used searchers and study results. Despite some derision, alternatives to social science research that many in a head-to-head comparison with the alternative people rely on to acquire knowledge and make ways we can learn about the world and make deci- decisions: sions, research readily wins hands-down. This is why professionals, educated people, and respon- Personal experience and common sense sible leaders consistently turn to the methods, prin- Experts and authorities ciples, and findings of social research when they Popular and media messages want to learn more or make important decisions. Ideological beliefs and values This text considers both the methodology and methods of social science research. The terms may Knowledge from Personal Experience seem to be synonyms, but methodology is broader and Common Sense and envelops methods. Methodology means under- standing the entire research process—including its If something happens to us, if we personally see it social-organizational context, philosophical as- or experience it, we probably accept it as true. Per- sumptions, ethical principles, and the political im- sonal experience or “seeing is believing” is a pow- pact of new knowledge from the research enterprise. erful type of knowledge. Unfortunately, it can also Methods refer to the collection of specific tech- lead us astray. Something similar to an optical illu- niques we use in a study to select cases, measure sion or mirage can occur. What appears to be true and observe social life, gather and refine data, ana- actually is due to an illusion, yet the power of im- lyze data, and report on results. The two are closely mediacy and direct personal contact is so strong that linked and interdependent. we easily fall for illusions without even realizing it. 2 WHY DO RESEARCH? This is why many people insist on believing what EXPANSION BOX they personally experience rather than what they 1 What We Think We Will Do and learn by reading a carefully conducted research What We Actually Do study that was designed to avoid the errors of per- sonal experience.