Re-imagining Niagara: A Spatial Study of Economic Development (1783-1812) by Jessica Linzel, B.A. Department of History Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Faculty of Humanities, Brock University St. Catharines, Ontario © 2020 Abstract The end of the American Revolution marked a turning point in the history of Niagara. In the span of three decades, this Upper Canadian district evolved as the territory of nomadic groups of Mississauga and Haudenosaunee nations into the post-war settlement of approximately 15,000 white, black, and British-allied Indigenous nations. Some arrived immediately as refugees of the late war, while other families came later in hopes of securing a brighter future. Historians generally discuss this period of Niagara’s history in terms of its socio-political developments, while economic histories of the “Loyalist Era” are most often assigned a broader lens focusing on trade and commerce in Upper Canada. To fill this historiographical gap, this paper investigates the economic developments within the Niagara region from 1783-1812, using geographic information systems (GIS) to analyze the role of geography alongside human agency in commodity production and the formation of local trade networks. This thesis includes an interactive webmap used to analyze a carefully compiled geospatial database of commodity sales gathered from primary sources. Historical GIS sets this project apart from others by bringing the investigations back to the land, showing how farmers and merchants responded to natural barriers like distance, wetlands, elevation and soil type, inciting individuals to adapt according to their personal circumstances. Ultimately, this project illustrates Niagara’s post-war transition from its role as a transshipment point in a larger transatlantic trade system into a productive agrarian economy by the early 19th century. The Niagara escarpment and the region’s many creeks and rivers were the economic hubs wherein diverse groups of people converged to participate in industries that formed society’s foundational economic structures. At the same time, participation in Niagara’s economy was limited by factors of race, gender, and class. Thus, it also discusses how individuals maneuvered through their subjective socio-political positions within society in their own unique way. The re-interpretation of primary sources using spatial tools presents Niagara as an important colonial region into which the British government poured significant funds for its strategic position and market potential. Exposing its commercial development provides a tangible contribution to this part of Canadian history. Key Words: Niagara, Historical GIS, Loyalist, Upper Canada, Economic Development Acknowledgements Growing up in Niagara, I have biked, hiked, skated, kayaked and driven through each of the areas mentioned in this thesis, but my interest in local history did not really begin until my involvement at Nelles Manor in Grimsby in 2016. This research stems from the stories and lessons learned within that community, as I worked to understand the connections between the land I live on, and the people who came before me. I am grateful to the friends I met along the way; for the enlightening discussions, book recommendations, and for always cheering me on. I would also like to acknowledge the History Department at Brock University, for being instrumental in my research skill development over the past six years. I have had the privilege of working with and learning from some incredible professors and classmates during this time. A special thank-you goes to my graduate supervisor Dr. Daniel Samson for his mentorship. I deeply appreciate his knowledge and insight, and his words of encouragement that often strengthened my confidence. I was also supported by Dr. Colin Rose, whom I thank for his guidance and training as I entered the world of historical GIS. Dr. Joshua MacFadyen of the University of PEI also deserves recognition, for the time and effort he put into reviewing this paper, offering critical advice to help me better this research. This research was funded in part by generous scholarships from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Niagara Historical Society/David C. Murray & Elizabeth Surtees. I am sincerely grateful to these organizations for their financial aid. I would like to also thank my family for their constant emotional support. My thoughtful mother and her handy red pen deserve credit for uncovering the typos in my final drafts. Finally, I give thanks to God, the Giver of all good things, for His steadfast faithfulness to me. Table of Contents Introduction .............................................................................................................................1 Chapter I- Initial Settlement: Economic Foundations (1783-1789) ......................................... 21 Chapter II- Exponential Growth and Market Instability (1790-1799) ..................................... 65 Chapter III: Industry & Export (1800-1812)......................................................................... 111 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 155 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................ 157 List of Tables Table 1: Top Ten Niagara Wheat Producers 1787 Table 2: Wheat Production by Niagara Farms in 1787 Table 3: Examples of Wheat Production in 1787 Table 4: Total Furs Exported by the North West Company from Quebec Table 5: King’s Grist Mill Customer Locations Table 6: King’s Grist Mill Annual Figures Table 7: Forms of Payment in the King’s Mill Accounts Table 8: Top Ten Niagara Wheat Producers’ Family Statistics 1787 Table 9: Cartwright Papers: Furs sent to Quebec 1796-98 Table 10: Percentage of the Total Value of the North West Fur Trade List of Figures Figure 1: Connecting Agricultural Production to Farm Location Figure 2: The Four Mile Creek as the Central Point within Lumber Production Figure 3: Multiple Milling Options in Niagara Township, 1780s Figure 4: Wheat Production per Niagara Farm in 1787 Figure 5: Milling Developments by the 1790s Figure 6: Payment Methods at the King’s Mills Figure 7: Supply Chain Proximity & Wheat Production Figure 8: Water Retention in Grantham Figure 9: The Fifteen Mile Potashery Figure 10: Wheat Distribution in Upper Canada, 1803 (McCalla) A Note on GIS This research is driven by spatial analysis, using ArcGIS software to deepen the investigation of Niagara’s economic development from 1783 to 1812. The resulting webmap can be a useful tool for users to interact with solo, but it is best understood in conjunction with this paper. To access the webmap on your browser, click here: https://arcg.is/0Xj9Km The map’s layers, when activated in specific combinations, reveal important patterns that contribute to conclusions made in this paper. The GIS analyses developed in this project have been woven into the following chapters, which contain bolded footnotes that prompt the reader to turn on layers correlating to the argument being presented. The significance of each analysis is explained within the body of the paper. When the analysis is complete, turn those layers off, and continue reading. 1 Introduction This thesis is a spatial history project that uses digital mapping tools to investigate trade networks in the Niagara district of Upper Canada, presenting a regional study of commercial development that situates itself within a broader framework of colonial exchange. The project builds onto the existing literature of colonial development by offering an interactive web-based format with which to examine the translation of goods across space and time. This research is fundamentally about economic development on a regional scale, but situates itself within Canadian historiographical arguments about power dynamics in burgeoning colonial societies. In Niagara, Loyalist era socio-economic connections were shaped by both the natural and the human landscape. In this thesis, the arguments supporting this statement are based on a combination of textual research and interpretations of spatial data. Historical geographic information systems (GIS) are a particularly useful form of analysis by demanding a closer look at the land itself, guiding historians to a deeper understanding of the ways in which geography impacted development. Interpretations from the GIS present clear topographical delineations of settlement; primarily along main waterways and the Niagara escarpment. They also reveal patterns of production and consumption in rural markets, providing insight into the effects of geography on communication networks and the exchange of labour and resources. This thesis argues that the Niagara region transitioned out of the American Revolution from its role as a transshipment point in a larger transatlantic trade system into a productive agrarian economy by the early 19th century. Human and geographical actors intertwined to facilitate the production and movement of goods as Niagara’s rural commodities slowly and erratically entered into Atlantic markets. GIS technology reveals physical features such as the escarpment and the region’s many creeks and rivers as the economic hubs wherein diverse 2 groups of people converged to participate in industries that formed society’s foundational economic structures during the Loyalist