https://theses.gla.ac.uk/ Theses Digitisation: https://www.gla.ac.uk/myglasgow/research/enlighten/theses/digitisation/ This is a digitised version of the original print thesis. Copyright and moral rights for this work are retained by the author A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge This work cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Enlighten: Theses https://theses.gla.ac.uk/ [email protected] The construction of Muslim identities in the United Kingdom and France: a contribution to the critique of Orientalism Malcolm David Brown Submitted in partial fiiMment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Glasgow Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social Sciences © Malcolm David Brown April 1999 ProQuest Number: 10390889 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10390889 Published by ProQuest LLO (2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLO. ProQuest LLO. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.Q. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 [GLASGOW U N i V E R SIT Y i fJJBRARy \ ^ b_ 5 ~f- ( Q' Abstract This thesis makes a contribution to the critique of Orientalism, thiough a theoretical analysis and enqiirical obseivation of the construction of Muslim identities in the United Kingdom and France. It examines Western stereotypes of Islam, particularly of Muslims in the West, and ways in which they have responded, thr ough the construction of Muslim identities, to these stereotypes. The central contribution lies in joining these issues, estabhshing a dialectic of Orientahsm and Muslim identities. The thesis focuses on the stereotype of Islam as homogeneous, the sociological reahty that Islam and Muslim identities are diverse, and posits the same dialectical relationship between these phenomena. Part I examines Western representations of Islam, and begins with a theoretical and historical view of Orientahsm, starting from Edward Said’s work. It also insists on the diversity of Orientahst and Muslim perspectives, emphasises the mutual constitution of Islam and the West, and analyses their active participation in a process of polarisation. The thesis goes on to analyse the concept of Islamophobia, and argues it encapsulates an aspect of current reahty, though it refers to diverse phenomena. Other representations of Islam, particularly in the media, are examined in the foUowing chapter, which discusses stereotypes of exoticism, fanaticism, delinquency, and an emergent critique of Islamophobia. ^ Part II focuses on Mushm identities in the United Kingdom and France, and examines ways in which Muslims, thiough the construction of Mushm identities. jiicoiporate or reject Western representations of Islam. It begins by discussing theories of identity, and develops a sociological framework for understanding Muslim identities. It goes on to show, and this is a central contribution of the thesis, that Muslim identities are diverse, and this diversity represents different responses to the stereotype of Islam as homogeneous. It describes and analyses different meanings and articulations of Islam, diverse sources of Muslim identities, and the combination of Muslim identities with other identities. The following chapters identify arenas in which Islam and the West actually meet, and thus examines the dialectic of Orientalism and Muslim identities more closely. Chapter 7 considers theoretical and empirical relationships between Muslim identities and national identities. Chapter 8 examines the educational sphere in a British-French comparative perspective, and focuses particularly on the cultural meanings of the hijab (Islamic headscarf). Finally, Chapter 9 describes, and analyses the significance of, Muslim-Christian dialogue, an arena in which Islam meets the "Christian West’, and in which a diversity of Muslim identities is developed. The conclusion corroborates the dialectic of Orientahsm and Muslim identities, emphasises comparisons between the United Kingdom and France, and suggests directions for future research. Ill ... knowledge of Islam and Islamic peoples has generally proceeded not only from dominance and confrontation but also from cultural antipathy. Today Islam is defined negatively as that with which the West is radically at odds, and this tension establishes a fr amework radically limiting knowledge of Islam (Said 1997b; 163). ... ce que tu as à l’intérieur, c’est l’islam... (inteiviewee cited in Kepel 1991; 31). O mankind! We created you fr om a single (pah) of a male and a female and made you into nations and tribes that ye may know each other (The Qm’an, Al Hujurat^ 49:13). IV Contents Abstract ii Frontispiece iv Acknowledgements xi Author’s declaration xhi 1. Introduction 1.1. A sociological reflection on the diversity of Islam 1 1.2. Rationales 9 1.3. Hypotheses and questions 12 1.4. Structme 15 1.5. Methodology 21 1.6. Contributions 30 1.7. Review of literature 33 Part I: Western representations of Islam 2. On the critique of Orientahsm 2.1. Introduction 50 2.2. Edward Said’s critique of Orientahsm 51 ^ 2.3. Moving beyond Said 57 2.4. The heterogeneity of Mushm p ersp ectives 61 2.5. Heterogeneous Orientalisms 72 2.6. Conclusion 77 3. Orientalism, racism and Islamophobia 3.1. Introduction 80 3.2. Islamophobia, Orientalism and religious prejudice 83 3.3. Examples of Islamophobic discouise 91 3.4. Comparative issues 98 3.5. Conclusion 103 4. Media representations of Islam 4.1. Introduction and context 105 4.2. Exoticism 109 4.3. Fanaticism 114 4.4. Delinquency 126 4.5. A new critique of Islamophobia? 134 4.6. Comparative discussion and conclusion 138 Part H: Muslim identities in the United Kingdom and Fi ance 5. Identity 5.1. Intro duction 142 5.2. Theories of identity 144 5.3. The nation, the group and the ummah 152 5.4. Changing identities 159 5.5. Conclusion 166 ^6 . The diversity of Muslim identities 6.1. Introduction 168 VI 6.2. Meanings and articulations of Islam: mosques and organisations 170 6.3. Meanings and articulations of Islam: individuals 183 6 .4 . Somces of Muslim identities 189 6.5. The combination of Muslim identities with other identities 206 6 .6 . Comparative issues 210 6.7. Conclusion: Muslim identities as responses to Western representations 212 7. Muslims and national identities 7.1. Introduction 215 7.2. Islam and national identities 218 7.3. The combination of Muslim identities and national identities 224 7.4. The politics of integration and multiculturahsm 229 7.5. Conclusion 238 8 . The school and the hijab 8 .1. hitro duction 241 8.2. The educational sphere: a comparison 242 8.3. Meanings of the hijab 249 8.4. Conclusion 265 9. Muslim-Christian relations 9.1. Introduction 268 9.2. The sociological route 270 9.3. The ethnographic route 278 9.4. The theological route 293 9.5. Comparative evaluation 300 I 9.6. Conclusion 303 Vll 10. Conclusion 10. 1. Addiessing the hyp otheses 3 04 10.2. Answeiing the questions 309 10.3. Comparisons and contributions 312 10.4. Dhections for future research 318 Appendices Appendix 1. School document against the hijab 322 Appendix 2. School document against the hijab: translation 324 Appendix 3. Extract fr om fieldwork notes at the Halaqah chcle in Glasgow 326 Appendix 4. Extract from fieldwork notes at the Groupe Islamo-Chrétien 335 App endix 5. Nostra A e fate 337 Appendix 6 . Extract fi’om Karl Barth (1956: 425-6) 342 Glo ssary of Muslim teims 344 Glossary of French teims 346 Bibhography 347 Vlll Tables Table 1.1: Respondents in France 26 Table 1.2: Respondents in the United Kingdom 27 Table 4.1 : Oppositions in article on Wazemmes market 111 Table 4.2: Fanhliar/exotic juxtapositions in article on Wazemmes market 111 Table 4.3; Selection of comt reports in La Voix du Nord 130 Table 10.1: Contrasts between France and the United Kingdom 314 Figures Figure 5.1: Two variations on the TST (twenty statements test) 150 Figure 6.1: Mosques in Lhle and boundaries of Wazemmes 199 Figme 6 .2 : Halal butchers in Wazemmes 200 Figure 6.3: Shops and busmesses (excluding halal butchers) catering specifically for Muslims in Wazemmes 200 Figure 6.4: "Muslim culture industiy’ in Wazemmes 201 Figure 6.5: Mosques in Glasgow and location of Woodlands 203 Figure 6 .6 : Halal butchers m Woodlands 204 Figure 6.7: Shops and busmesses (excluding /?a/a/butchers) catering specifically for Muslims in Woodlands 205 Figure 6 .8 : "Muslim culture industiy’ hi Woodlands 205 Acknowledgements Firstly, I wish to thank my supeivisors. Professor Robert Miles followed this project from start to finish; he encomaged me to think about postgiaduate research while I was stiU an undergraduate student, and he was a constant source of academic expertise and personal encouragement. Dr Nicole Bourque was particularly helpfiil while I was dohig fieldwork, and her readiness to tell me that I needed a holiday was a cmcial factor in the completion of this work. It is customary to acknowledge one’s supervisors, but even if it were not, I would still want to thank them both.