ENCYCLOPEDIA OF JAPANESE BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT ENCYCLOPEDIA OF JAPANESE BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT Edited by Allan Bird London and New York First published 2002 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2007. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk” ©selection and editorial matter Allan Bird 2002; ©the entries Routledge 2002 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Encyclopedia of Japanese business and management/edited by Allan Bird. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Japan—Gommerce—Encyclopedias. 2. Industrial management—Japan— Encyclopedias. 3. Corporations, Japanese—Management—Encyclopedias. 4. Business enterprises—Japan—Encyclopedias. 5. Japan—Commerce— Dictionaries. 6. Japanese language—Dictionaries-English. I. Title: Japanese business and management. II. Bird, Allan. HF1001 .E467 2001 1650′.0952–dc21 2001019952 ISBN 0-203-99632-1 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-415-18945-4 (Print Edition) Contents List of contributors vii Entries A-Z 1 Acknowledgements xi Introduction xiii Index 483 How to use this book xv Thematic entry list xvi Contributors Editorial team Volume editor Allan Bird University of Missouri, St. Louis Consultant editors Nigel Campbell Joop Stam University of Manchester Erasmus University Mitsuyo Hanada Mark Tilton Keio University Purdue University Stephen Nicholas Mitsuru Wakabayashi University of Melbourne Nagoya University Thomas Roehl Eleanor D.Westney Western Washington University Massachusetts Institute of Technology Shane J.Schvaneveldt Hideki Yoshihara Weber State University Kobe University List of contributors James C.Abegglen Christine L.Ahmadjian Asia Advisory Service KK Columbia University Tetsuo Abo Teikyo University Jennifer Amyx Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Raj Aggarwal Australian National University Kent State University Marie Anchordoguy Nathaniel O.Agola University of Washington Nagoya University viii Contributors Fumie Ando Susumu Hagiwara Nanzan University Hosei University Hirotaka Aoki Ehud Harari Tokyo Institute of Technology Hebrew University of Jerusalem David M.Arase Hitoshi Higuchi Claremont College, Pomona Shinshu University William Barnes James E.Hodder University of Portland University of Wisconsin Michael Beeman Ippei Ichige US Department of Commerce Aoyama Gakuin University Theodore Bestor Ralph Inforzato Harvard University JETRO Chicago Mary Yoko Brannen Kenji Ishihara San Jose State University Association for International Cooperation of Agriculture Robert Brown Greenebaum, Doll & McDonald Pllc, Hiroshi Itagaki Louisville, KY Musashi University Ronda Roberts Callister Tetsuya Iwasaki Utah State University Shinshu University Meika Clucas Megumi Katsuta California Polytechnic State University Aoyama Gakuin University Alexandra Cohen Martin Kenney California Polytechnic State University University of California, Davis Richard A.Colignon Harold Kerbo Duquesne University California Polytechnic State University Tim Craig Jo-Seoul Kim University of Victoria, Canada Shinshu University Edwin C.Duerr Hiroki Kondo San Francisco State University Shinshu University Mitsuko S.Duerr Aya Kubota San Francisco State University Aoyama Gakuin University Dayo Fawibe Hiroshi Kumon University of Missouri, St. Louis Hosei University David Flath James R.Lincoln NCSU Department of Economics University of California, Berkeley Michael Gerlach Terri R.Lituchy University of California, Berkeley California Polytechnic State University Georgios Giakatis Leonard H.Lynn Tokyo Institute of Technology Case Western Reserve University Contributors ix Mark Mason Elizabeth L.Rose Yale University University of Auckland Aki Matsunga Pernille Rudlin Aoyama Gakuin University Brighton, UK John A.McKinstry Ulrike Schaede California Polytechnic State University University of California, San Diego Mari Miura Mark J.Scher University of Tokyo Institute for Financial Affairs, New York Dario Ikuo Miyake Shane J.Schvaneveldt University of São Paulo Weber State University Shintaro Mogi Roblyn Simeon Shinshu University San Francisco State University Sean Mooney Ron Singleton G2 Western Washington University Tetsu Morishima Michael Smitka Aoyama Gakuin University Washington and Lee University Kazuharu Nagase Lucrezia Songini Shinshu University Bocconi University Takeshi Nakajo Brenda Sternquist Chuo University Michigan State University Jay Nelson Yasuo Sugiyama SS Media, New York University of Tokyo Stephen Nicholas Noriya Sumihara University of Melbourne Tenri University Keith A.Nitta Margaret Takeda University of California, Berkeley Aoyama Gakuin University Kazahiro Okazaki Sumihiro Takeda Aichi Institute of Technology Aoyama Gakuin University Soyeon Park Ogiwara Takeshi Aoyama Gakuin University Aoyama Gakuin University Vladimir Pucik Jay Tate IMD University of California, Berkeley William Purcell Mark Tilton University of New South Wales Purdue University Jörg Raupach-Sumiya De-bi Tsao German Institute for Japanese Studies Tokyo Institute of Technology Thomas Roehl William M.Tsutsui Western Washington University University of Kansas x Contributors Tsutomu Tsuzuki Michael A.Witt Shinshu University Harvard University Victor K.Ujimoto Bernard Wolf University of Guelph York University Canada Robert Uriu Heung-wah Wong University of California, Irvine University of Hong Kong Terri Ursacki Brian Woodall University of Calgary Georgia Institute of Technology Chikako Usui Takehiko Yasuda University of Missouri, St. Louis Shinshu University Carien Van Mourik Masanori Yasumoto Eramus University Rotterdam Shinshu University Steven Vogel Toru Yoshikawa University of California, Berkeley Nihon University Mitsuru Wakabayashi Patrick Ziltener Nagoya University Max Planck Institute for the Study of Societies, Germany Eleanor D.Westney Massachusetts Institute of Technology Acknowledgements Over the last several years I have found myself Stephen Nicholas, Melbourne University; Tho- paying closer attention to the acknowledgements mas Roehl, University of Western Washington; that precede most books. Perhaps it is simply a Joop Stam, Erasmus University; Mark Tilton, sign of advancing maturity or age, but I have Purdue University; Mitsuru Wakabayashi, become more curious about who people choose Nagoya University; Eleanor Westney Massachu- to recognize as contributing to a particular effort. setts Institute of Technology; and Hideki After all, there are a host of people associated Yoshihara, Kobe University with any published work, and an even larger Possibly the greatest challenge confronting the number involved in support of the research that compilation of any encyclopedia is the myriad goes into a scholarly volume. It is with that detail that must be sorted through. Once entries thought in mind that I sat down to pen a note of have been defined, authors must be identified and recognition for those who have contributed to contacted, manuscripts for each entry must be this volume. received and reviewed, revisions requested, com- An encyclopedia is, by its very nature, the off- pleted entries properly formatted, and the final spring of myriad parents—an insight I knew with product forwarded to the publishers. The task is my head at the outset of this undertaking. Now, difficult enough without the added challenge of at the conclusion, I know it with my heart as well. working with academic scholars, who as a group, It is only fitting, before proceeding on to intro- give added meaning to the phrase “herding cats.” duce the volume itself, to recognize those many I was ably assisted in the process of managing all individuals who have contributed to this effort. these details by three research assistants. Indeed, Though it is impossible to acknowledge every- truth be told, I was the inept professor doing what one, certain people stand out for both their per- I could to assist them. I began the project with sonal contribution, their insightful counsel or their Alexandra Cohen, who did much of the initial guiding spirit. organizing and preparation of databases. With I was aided in the difficult task of surveying about year to go in completing the project Alex an ill-defined academic field by an able group of headed off to Germany to continue her studies colleagues who served as Consulting Editors. I there. Before leaving she selected and trained her stand in admiration of each of them individually. replacement, Erin Montgomery Several months Collectively they served as a brain trust in help- later I moved from the California Polytechnic ing to identify the breadth and depth of the vol- State University in San Luis Obispo to the Uni- ume. Part of their task was to help set the markers versity of Missouri-St. Louis. It fell upon Erin to which would define the amorphous field we chose see that all databases, files and records were or- to label “Japanese business