Comics Aren’t Just For Fun Anymore: The Practical Use of Comics by TESOL Professionals by David Recine A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in TESOL _________________________________________ Adviser Date _________________________________________ Graduate Committee Member Date _________________________________________ Graduate Committee Member Date University of Wisconsin-River Falls 2013 Comics, in the form of comic strips, comic books, and single panel cartoons are ubiquitous in classroom materials for teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL). While comics material is widely accepted as a teaching aid in TESOL, there is relatively little research into why comics are popular as a teaching instrument and how the effectiveness of comics can be maximized in TESOL. This thesis is designed to bridge the gap between conventional wisdom on the use of comics in ESL/EFL instruction and research related to visual aids in learning and language acquisition. The hidden science behind comics use in TESOL is examined to reveal the nature of comics, the psychological impact of the medium on learners, the qualities that make some comics more educational than others, and the most empirically sound ways to use comics in education. The definition of the comics medium itself is explored; characterizations of comics created by TESOL professionals, comic scholars, and psychologists are indexed and analyzed. This definition is followed by a look at the current role of comics in society at large, the teaching community in general, and TESOL specifically. From there, this paper explores the psycholinguistic concepts of construction of meaning and the language faculty. Through an analysis of the evolution of language, art history, and the psychology of perception, comics are revealed to be an innate form of human communication that originated in pre-literate ancient times; this medium continues to be a powerful form of non-verbal communication to this day. Next, educational theories particularly relevant to comics use in TESOL are examined, with a focus Allan Pavio’s Dual Coding theory of learning and Stephen Krashen’s Input and Affective Filter Hypotheses. Each major section of this thesis contains a subsection of case studies from TESOL fieldwork, followed by an index of the things teachers should know and do to use the information in the section effectively. Recine I Table of Contents 1. Introduction ……………………………….………………………………….……….......................1 1.1. The Prevalence of Cartoon Art as a Tool of the TESOL Profession…….……………….1 1.2. Some Apparent Advantages of Comics over Other Forms of Cartoon Art……..………..5 1.3. Overview of this Paper’s Content and Aims…...………………………..……………….6 2. The Definition of Comics For TESOL Purposes………………………………..…………..….....12 2.1. The Need for a Clearer Definition of Comics in the Field of TESOL.…………………11 2.2. The Definition of Comics in Current TESOL and Linguistics Literature...….…………13 2.3. The Comics Scholars’ Definition of Comics...……………………………….………....27 2.4. The Definition of Comics for TESOL Purposes……………………..………….………32 2.5. Case Studies in the Usefulness of Comics Classification to ESL/EFL Teachers...……..35 2.6. Defining Comics: What ESL/EFL Instructors Should Know and Do…………………..42 3. Current Use of Comics by ESL/EFL Learners and TESOL Professionals……...………………44 3.1. Comics and Global, Cross-Cultural Communication….……………………….…….....44 3.2. TESOL Professionals’ Resources for Effective Comics Use…………………………...47 3.3. Comics Use in Modern TESOL Practice……………….…………………………...…..52 3.4. Case Studies in the Use of Comics in their Common Present-Day Roles as a TESOL Aid………………………………………………………………………………………56 3.5. The Current Use of Comics in ESL/EFL Instruction: What Teachers Should Know and Do……………………………………………………………………………………….62 4. Maximizing the Effectiveness of Comics in TESOL: Cognitive and Linguistic Theory.……….65 4.1. The Evolution of Visual Language………………………………………………….…..65 4.2. Constructivism and the Processing of Visual Language……………………………......77 4.3. The Language Faculty in a Broad Sense……………………………………………......86 Recine II 4.4. The Application of Cognitive and Linguistic Theory to TESOL Comics Pedagogy: Case Studies……..………………………………………………………………………93 4.5. Cognitive and Linguistic Theory as it Relates to TESOL Comics Pedagogy: What Teachers Should Know and Do…………………………………………………………98 5. Maximizing the Effectiveness of Comics in TESOL: Learning Theory..…………………...….103 5.1. Dual Coding Theory…………………………………………………………………...103 5.2. The Input Hypothesis………………………………………………………………….123 5.3. The Affective Filter Hypothesis……………………………………………………….126 5.4. The Application of Learning Theory to TESOL Comics Pedagogy: Case Studies..…..129 5.5. Learning Theory and TESOL Comics Pedagogy: What Teachers Should Know and Do……………………………………………………………………………………...145 6. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….………....150 Bibliography…………………..……………………………………………………………………...155 Recine 1 1. Introduction 1.1. The Prevalence of Cartoon Art as a Tool of the TESOL Profession Cartoon art is quite common in Teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) settings and is used frequently by TESOL professionals. This is apparent in South Korea and China, two of the world’s largest markets for English as a second language/English as a foreign language (ESL/EFL) education (Beare). In South Korea, the national curriculum for the public school system includes numerous CD-roms featuring a recurring cast of animated characters (Em) (fig. 1.1.1). In China, animation use is on the rise in private cartoon themed chain schools. Disney English, which uses the popular Walt Disney Studios animated cartoon characters to teach English as a second language, opened its first school in Shanghai in 2008. Disney expanded quickly from there, setting up a total of 30 EFL academies in China over the next four years. Their rapid expansion inspired regional copycats, with other TESOL professionals in China setting up unauthorized “counterfeit” Disney English services that use the Disney characters (Yiwen). Many other schools worldwide have used Disney’s cartoon art more legitimately, purchasing Disney English’s globally marketed teaching materials (“Disney Publishing”). While cartoon art that moves on the screen and features recurring characters has obvious appeal for educators, it is just one of several forms of cartoon art available to teachers. Cartoon-style clip art, stand-alone images that do not feature recurring characters and are not accompanied by words or sounds, also abounds in ESL/EFL learning situations. Major publishers of ESL/EFL materials such as Pearson, Oxford, and Cambridge all use simple drawings that could be described as “cartoony” in their textbooks. In addition, comic books and strips often appear in ESL/EFL classrooms. Comics may be included in the official curriculum. They may also come from external sources, procured by educators seeking additional material for their lessons. Recine 2 Fig. 1.1.1. Images of Zeeto and Julie, animated characters from South Korea’s national EFL curriculum (“Lesson 1, Period 3” 11). Comic strips have always appeared as a visual supplement to text from time to time alongside their clip art brethren in commercially marketed ESL/EFL textbooks. For example, Oxford University Press includes at least one original vocabulary or grammar-focused comic strip in each unit of its popular L et ’s G o series for child learners of ESL/EFL (Nakata et al.). In university and vocational education resources, one can also find an abundance of comic strips and cartoon images. Cartoon art is common in practical adult ESL/EFL instructional materials published by Cambridge, McGraw Hill, Hyundai, and many other prominent publishers of adult ESL/EFL resources. Similar uses of comic strips and cartoon drawings to illustrate points appear in government-sponsored educational materials as well. The California Department of Education and the U.S. Department of State issue a number of textbooks that use comics for the benefit of ESL/EFL learners and native speakers alike (fig. 1.1.2). Recine 3 Fig. 1.1.2. Left: Sample from the The Lighter Side of TEFL. (“Word games” 16). Right: Sample from CK- 12: Chemistry (Bewick et al. 114). Left image is public domain. Right image © The CK-12 Foundation. This file is licensed to the CK-12 Foundation under a Creative Commons Attribution License. Recine 4 While the books mentioned above use comics as a partial component, some ESL/EFL student books treat comics as their primary component, with comic strips and cartoon art dominating page space (fig. 1.1.3). A look at Internet-based teachers’ resources reveals many teacher testimonials on the value of comics, along with lesson plans and suggested activities. Noticing the demand for its product in the ESL/EFL classroom, the comics industry has stepped up, offering English language materials for learners and instructors through print and electronic venues. Various comics-based resources for TESOL will be discussed in greater depth in the third section of this thesis. Fig. 1.1.3. Left: Sample from the Korean National Curriculum (Park “Book 2” 25; “Teach and Learn”). Right: Sample from Superhero ABC, drawn by Bob McLeod (McLeod 25). Image on left is public domain. Image on right is © Bob McLeod. Used with permission. Recine 5 1.2. Some Apparent Advantages of Comics over Other Forms of Cartoon Art Comics have certain unique advantages over animation. Comics content is easier to manage and use than