Shades of Intolerance: The Influence of Terrorism on Discriminatory Attitudes and Behaviors in the United Kingdom and Canada. by Chuck Baker A Dissertation submitted to the Graduate School-Newark Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in Global Affairs Written under the direction of Dr. Gregg Van Ryzin and approved by ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ Newark, New Jersey May, 2015 Copyright page: © 2015 Chuck Baker All Rights Reserved ABSTRACT The Influence of Terrorism on Discriminatory Attitudes and Behaviors in the United Kingdom and Canada by Chuck Baker Dissertation Director: Dr. Gregg Van Ryzin, Ph.D. Terrorism has been shown to have a destabilizing impact upon the citizens of the nation- state in which it occurs, causing social distress, fear, and the desire for retribution (Cesari, 2010; Chebel d’Appollonia, 2012). Much of the recent work on 21st century terrorism carried out in the global north has placed the focus on terrorism being perpetuated by Middle East Muslims. In addition, recent migration trends show that the global north is becoming much more diverse as the highly populated global south migrates upward. Population growth in the global north is primarily due to increases in the minority presence, and these post-1960 changes have increased the diversity of historically more homogeneous nations like the United Kingdom and Canada. This research examines the influence of terrorism on discriminatory attitudes and behaviors, with a focus on the United Kingdom in the aftermath of the July 7, 2005 terrorist attacks in London. Competing theoretical explanations for the increase in discrimination were tested, including Nationalism theory, Authoritarianism theory, and Integrated Threat theory. Using various international social surveys and a difference-in-differences statistical strategy, this study compares trends in attitudes and behaviors in the United Kingdom to those in Canada, a politically and socially similar nation-state that (at the time of this study) had not experienced a major terrorist attack. Hate crimes data is also ii used to analyze discriminatory behaviors. The empirical findings suggest there was a rise in Islamophobia and racism in the United Kingdom against visible minorities in the aftermath of the July 7, 2005 terrorist attacks. Difference-in-differences modeling shows that while Authoritarianism offers important theoretical insights on the motivation of terrorism on authoritarian attitudes in Canada; Nationalism theory, in the form of ethnic nationalism, is an important influence on discriminatory attitudes and behaviors in the UK. Findings also suggest that Nationalism theory is the most likely basis for the observed increases in discrimination in the UK. iii ` Acknowledgements While this dissertation is my research work, completing it required a substantial amount of thought, patience, exertion and discipline from a variety of people. It is in this section that I acknowledge their considerable contribution. Initially, it is important that I acknowledge my Christian faith, Christ and my Christian brethren. I do not take for granted these several years of learning in the Global Affairs program and to have a program receive me, educate me, nurture me and afford me the opportunity to become an expert in the field is due to the divine intervention of the highest power. Again, this could not have been possible without spiritual direction. My wife Marsha Baker deserves this acknowledgement for listening to me as I used her support, counsel, encouragement and loving sustenance to read another book, write another paper, travel away from the home for my selfish desire to learn about global affairs in northern New Jersey, or simply living in my proximity and waiting patiently as I matured intellectually. Also deserving are the children in my life. Clayton, Charnice, Chris, Nishaya, Aziya and Alannah. I found them to be a powerful motivator that made me regulate my behavior in many respects. When an assignment was due in weeks, I would try to finish it ahead of time given that these young people in my life may need me at inopportune times. Having work completed before it was due meant more time to contemplate any changes I wanted to make before the time it was to be submitted. In addition, when graduate school life iv ` seemed daunting, they forced me into breaks by reminding me of and obliging me to fulfill my parental responsibilities. My tremendous respect and gratitude to Dr. Gregg Van Ryzin. His statistical and research methodological proficiency are brilliant. He knows of the several important moments that he stepped into the dissertation process to offer his critical direction and masterful support. He often amazed me at his ability to counsel as writing a dissertation is laden with emotional ebb and flow. As a dissertation chair, he is excellent. As a mentor, he is invaluable. My thanks to Dr. Ariane Chebel d’Appollonia. As an expert on immigration and racism in Europe, her expertise and direction were constructive. In addition, she read my work offering me critical feedback during the summer. Her attention to detail and candor were important elements of the dissertation process for me. Dr. Sherri-Ann Butterfield has earned my gratitude and respect. Her background in discrimination and racism with a focus on geographical location of minorities helped highlight the association between discrimination and place of residence. Her patience during this dissertation was also noteworthy. To my external reader, Dr. Adriana Leela Bohm, I extend my appreciation. Her leveled demeanor was important during this process. As an intellectual on diversity issues, her v ` feedback and direction on important readings on diversity and discrimination offered noteworthy insight. My thanks for her guidance. Another note of thanks must go to the Division of Global Affairs Associate Director Ann Martin. She is a wealth of knowledge in the program and is invaluable as a department resource. In addition, Administrative Assistant, Desiree Gordon, and Division of Global Affairs Director, Jean-Marc Coicaud fulfill critical functions and have earned my appreciation. I wish to acknowledge my parents. Nannie Mae Porter and Reverend Anderson E. Porter. They know of their importance in my life. Also, a note of appreciation to my brother and his family, as well as my brother-in-law and his family. All of these family members would diminish the lonely existence, at times, of a graduate school student who is drudging through this multi-year process. They gave me justification for breaks through telephone discussion and intermittent visits. For that, I thank you. vi ` Table of Contents The Influence of Terrorism on Discriminatory Attitudes and Behaviors in the United Kingdom and Canada .................................................................................... ii Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iv CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................1 July 7, 2005 London Bombings ...........................................................................................3 June, 2006 Toronto 18 Terrorist Cell ...................................................................................6 Discrimination in the Construction of Counterterrorism and Securitization Policies ....….8 The United Kingdom and Securitization as a Response to Terrorism …………………. 14 Canada and Securitization as a Response to Terrorism …………………………………17 Fighting Terrorist, Creating Islamophobia or Motivating Racism ....................................18 Economic Deprivation, Residential Segregation, the Oldham and Bradford Riots…… 23 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................39 Institutional Discrimination, Individual Discrimination, Prejudice and Hate Crimes .......39 Discrimination....................................................................................................................44 Theoretical Perspectives ....................................................................................................51 Nationalism ........................................................................................................................54 Authoritarianism ................................................................................................................64 Integrative Threat Theory ..................................................................................................74 Terrorism............................................................................................................................87 Securitization and Discrimination......................................................................................90 Defensive Strategies to Limit Discrimination....................................................................92 CHAPTER THREE: THE UNITED KINGDOM WITH CANADA AS A COMPARISON .................................................................................................................96