Algorithms for Incremental Planar Graph Drawing and Two-page Book Embeddings Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakult¨at der Universit¨at zu Koln¨ vorgelegt von Martin Gronemann aus Unna Koln¨ 2015 Berichterstatter (Gutachter): Prof. Dr. Michael Junger¨ Prof. Dr. Markus Chimani Prof. Dr. Bettina Speckmann Tag der m¨undlichenPr¨ufung: 23. Juni 2015 Zusammenfassung Diese Arbeit besch¨aftigt sich mit zwei Problemen bei denen es um Knoten- ordnungen in planaren Graphen geht. Hierbei werden als erstes Ordnungen betrachtet, die als Grundlage fur¨ inkrementelle Zeichenalgorithmen dienen. Solche Algorithmen erweitern in der Regel eine vorhandene Zeichnung durch schrittweises Hinzufugen¨ von Knoten in der durch die Ordnung gegebene Rei- henfolge. Zu diesem Zweck kommen im Gebiet des Graphenzeichnens verschie- dene Ordnungstypen zum Einsatz. Einigen dieser Ordnungen fehlen allerdings gewunschte¨ oder sogar fur¨ einige Algorithmen notwendige Eigenschaften. Diese Eigenschaften werden genauer untersucht und dabei ein neuer Typ von Ord- nung entwickelt, die sogenannte bitonische st-Ordnung, eine Ordnung, welche Eigenschaften kanonischer Ordnungen mit der Flexibilit¨at herk¨ommlicher st- Ordnungen kombiniert. Die zus¨atzliche Eigenschaft bitonisch zu sein erm¨oglicht es, eine st-Ordnung wie eine kanonische Ordnung zu verwenden. Es wird gezeigt, dass fur¨ jeden zwei-zusammenh¨angenden planaren Graphen eine bitonische st-Ordnung in linearer Zeit berechnet werden kann. Im Ge- gensatz zu kanonischen Ordnungen, k¨onnen st-Ordnungen naturgem¨aß auch fur¨ gerichtete Graphen verwendet werden. Diese F¨ahigkeit ist fur¨ das Zeichnen von aufw¨artsplanaren Graphen von besonderem Interesse, da eine bitonische st-Ordnung unter Umst¨anden es erlauben wurde,¨ vorhandene ungerichtete Zei- chenverfahren fur¨ den gerichteten Fall anzupassen. Basierend auf dieser Beob- achtung wird eine Teilmenge der planaren st-Graphen charakterisiert, fur¨ die eine solche Ordnung existiert. Zus¨atzlich wird ein Linearzeit-Algorithmus vor- gestellt, der diese Graphen erkennt und eine bitonische st-Ordnung berechnet. Fur¨ die ubrigen¨ planaren st-Graphen wird gezeigt, dass mittels Unterteilung spezifischer Kanten eine Instanz augmentiert werden kann, so dass fur¨ diese ei- ne bitonische st-Ordnung existiert. Dabei bestimmt ein Linearzeit-Algorithmus die kleinste Kantenmenge fur¨ den Unterteilungsschritt. Weiterhin wird gezeigt, dass fur¨ einen planaren st-Graphen G = (V, E) diese Menge nicht mehr als |V | − 3 Kanten umfasst und jede Kante h¨ochstens einmal unterteilt werden muss. Dieses Resultat l¨asst sich sofort ubertragen¨ auf die Anzahl der ben¨otigten Knicke in aufw¨artsplanaren Zeichnungen. Es wird ein Algorithmus angegeben, der eine aufw¨artsplanare Zeichnung mit quadratischer Fl¨ache, h¨ochstens |V |−3 Knicken insgesamt und maximal einem Knick pro Kante in linearer Zeit erstellt. Der zweite Teil der Arbeit widmet sich der Einbettung von planaren Graphen mit Maximalgrad drei und vier in Buchern¨ mit zwei Seiten. Neben einem ver- einfachten inkrementellen Linearzeit-Algorithmus fur¨ drei-zusammenh¨angende 3-planare Graphen, wird auch ein Linearzeit-Algorithmus fur¨ den 4-planaren Fall vorgestellt. Abstract Subject of this work are two problems related to ordering the vertices of planar graphs. The first one is concerned with the properties of vertex-orderings that serve as a basis for incremental drawing algorithms. Such a drawing algorithm usually extends a drawing by adding the vertices step-by-step as provided by the ordering. In the field of graph drawing several orderings are in use for this purpose. Some of them, however, lack certain properties that are desirable or required for classic incremental drawing methods. We narrow down these properties, and introduce the bitonic st-ordering, an ordering which combines the features only available when using canonical orderings with the flexibility of st-orderings. The additional property of being bitonic enables an st-ordering to be used in algorithms that usually require a canonical ordering. With this in mind, we describe a linear-time algorithm that computes such an ordering for every biconnected planar graph. Unlike canonical orderings, st- orderings extend to directed graphs, in particular planar st-graphs. Being able to compute bitonic st-orderings for planar st-graphs is of particular interest for upward planar drawing algorithms, since traditional incremental algorithms for undirected planar graphs might be adapted to directed graphs. Based on this observation, we give a full characterization of the class of planar st-graphs that admit such an ordering. This includes a linear-time algorithm for recognition and ordering. Furthermore, we show that by splitting specific edges of an in- stance that is not part of this class, one is able to transform it into one for which then such an ordering exists. To do so, we describe a linear-time algo- rithm for finding the smallest set of edges to split. We show that for a planar st-graph G = (V, E), |V | − 3 edge splits are sufficient and every edge is split at most once. This immediately translates to the number of bends required for upward planar poly-line drawings. More specifically, we show that every planar st-graph admits an upward planar poly-line drawing in quadratic area with at most |V | − 3 bends in total and at most one bend per edge. Moreover, the drawing can be obtained in linear time. The second part is concerned with embedding planar graphs with maximum degree three and four into books. Besides providing a simplified incremental linear-time algorithm for embedding triconnected 3-planar graphs into a book of two pages, we describe a linear-time algorithm to compute a subhamiltonian cycle in a triconnected 4-planar graph. Contents 1 Introduction1 2 Preliminaries5 2.1 Technical foundations.......................5 2.2 Oriented planar drawings of directed graphs........... 12 3 Bitonic st-orderings 25 3.1 Bitonic st-orderings of biconnected planar graphs........ 26 3.1.1 A linear-time algorithm.................. 32 3.1.2 The fixed embedding scenario............... 40 3.2 Straight-line drawings....................... 44 3.2.1 The algorithm of de Fraysseix, Pach and Pollack.... 44 3.2.2 The linear-time variant of Chrobak and Payne..... 47 3.2.3 A drawing algorithm for bitonic st-orderings...... 54 3.3 Bitonic st-orderings of planar st-graphs............. 59 3.3.1 Characterization & recognition.............. 61 3.3.2 Recognition & ordering in linear time.......... 68 3.3.3 Experimental results.................... 69 3.4 Upward planar poly-line drawings with few bends........ 74 3.4.1 The edge-split method................... 76 3.4.2 An optimal linear-time transformation.......... 79 3.4.3 Experimental results.................... 82 3.5 Visibility & contact representations................ 82 3.6 Conclusion............................. 87 4 Two-page Book Embeddings of Bounded Degree Graphs 93 4.1 Two-page book embeddings & subhamiltonicity......... 96 4.2 Two-page book embeddings of 3-planar graphs......... 99 4.3 Subhamiltonicity of triconnected 4-planar graphs........ 103 4.4 Conclusion............................. 114 5 Conclusion 115 1 Introduction Incremental drawing algorithms are a popular concept in the field of graph drawing. Their history goes back to the early beginnings of graph drawing, but even today, incremental approaches remain an important tool. Especially when dealing with problems that are concerned with planar graphs, various methods have been developed to solve these. Most algorithms follow a common principle that is similar to mathematical induction. The first ingredient for an incremental drawing algorithm is an ordering of entities. These entities are usually the vertices, but also other orderings for sets of vertices, edges or faces exist. Once an ordering of the entities is determined, a suitable invariant is described that a partially constructed drawing must comply with. One starts by choosing a base case that is used to create an initial drawing which complies with the invariant. Afterwards, the entities are added step-by-step as provided by the ordering. In each step, one has to ensure that the drawing can be extended while at the same time the invariant is satisfied. Sometimes it is necessary to distinguish the placement of the last entity. Algorithms that follow this abstract pattern have a long tradition, not only in the field of graph drawing. The type of ordering used depends heavily on the problem that has to be solved, and the ordering itself might require a certain type of graph. A well-known example are canonical orderings of which there exist multiple variants, each demanding different structural properties from the input graph. These serve as a basis for a variety of incremental drawing algorithms. In order to compensate for the restrictions imposed by the type of ordering used, one may decompose the graph into components that fulfill the requirements, compute drawings for these components and compose their drawings afterwards. In this thesis we investigate the properties of orderings that are suitable for incremental drawing algorithms in more detail, and propose a new type of or- dering, the bitonic st-ordering. The backstory that eventually led to this idea is as follows. In [5] and [6] we extend existing incremental drawing algorithms that require the input to be triconnected to ones that require only a biconnected graph using a standard decomposition technique that is referred to as SPQR- tree approach. It follows the described principle of decomposing the graph and merging the drawings afterwards. In [6] the input graph is further restricted to have maximum degree of three, the so-called 3-planar graphs, whereas in [5] 1 1 Introduction 1 1 2 2 3 4 8 4 7 3 5 6 6 7 5 1 8 2 (a) (b) Figure 1.1. (a) A planar graph embedded in the plane and (b) a two-page book embedding of the same graph. Edges drawn dashed are assigned to the first page, whereas solid ones are drawn on the second page. a different problem is solved that is concerned with 4-planar graphs. In both cases, the degree restriction is of importance.