Fascism in Europe, 1919–1945 ‘An excellent brief survey of fascism which treats all the major themes and problems, and is highly recommended.’ Stanley Payne, University of Wisconsin-Madison ‘The first book which makes the era of fascism as a whole fully intelligible to the student and the general reader.’ Roger Griffin, Oxford Brookes University Fascism in Europe, 1919–1945 surveys the elusive and controversial phenom- enon which is still the object of interest and debate over fifty years after its defeat in the Second World War. It introduces recent scholarship and continuing debates on the nature of fascism as well as often contentious con- tributions by foreign historians and political scientists. From the pre-First World War intellectual origins of fascism to its demise in 1945, this book examines: • the two ‘waves’ of fascism – in the period immediately following the First World War and in the late 1920s and early 1930s; • whether the European crisis created by the Treaty of Versailles allowed fascism to take root; • why fascism came to power in Italy and Germany, but not anywhere else in Europe; • fascism’s own claim to be an international and internationalist move- ment; • the idea of ‘totalitarianism’ as the most useful and appropriate way of analysing the fascist regimes. With a timeline of key dates, maps, illustrations, a glossary and a guide to further reading, Fascism in Europe, 1919–1945 is an invaluable introduction to this fascinating political movement and ideology. Philip Morgan is Senior Lecturer in Contemporary European History at the University of Hull. His previous publications include Italian Fascism, 1919–1945 (1995) and Italy, 1915–1940 (1998). Fascism in Europe, 1919–1945 Philip Morgan London and New York First published 2003 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2003. ©2003 Philip Morgan All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN 0-203-44822-7 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-75646-0 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 0–415–16942–9 (hbk) ISBN 0–415–16943–7 (pbk) This book is dedicated with love to my wife, Glen, in the hope that this time she will get beyond page eleven Contents List of illustrations ix List of abbreviations x Acknowledgements xii Chronology xiii Introduction: the historical problem of fascism 1 The setting for fascism5 National tensions 8 The threat from the left 9 Economic difficulties 11 Defining fascism13 1 The roots of fascism 15 The turn-of-the-century ‘counter-culture’ 16 Fascism before the war? 19 The First World War 23 The first fascism26 2 Fascist movements: the first wave, 1919–29 29 The Austrian Heimwehr 33 The Nazis in Germany 35 Hungary 38 The Romanian Iron Guard 41 Fascism in Italy 46 Fascism in France in the 1920s 51 The first wave of fascism59 3 Fascist movements: the second wave, 1929–40 64 The German Nazi party 65 Austria 71 The Gömbös regime and the Arrow Cross in Hungary 74 viii Contents The Iron Guard in Romania 81 Fascism in Finland 86 Fascism in Denmark, Norway and Sweden 90 The British Union of Fascists 93 Fascism in the Low Countries 97 Francisme and the PPF in France 102 Fascism in Spain 109 The second wave of fascism114 4 The fascist regimes in Italy and Germany 119 Fascist ‘totalitarianism’ 124 Charismatic leadership and fascist systems of rule 131 Fascism at war, both home and abroad, 1936–39 144 5 Fascist internationalism 159 The model of Italian Fascism in the 1920s 161 The two models of fascism in the 1930s 163 The fascist International 167 The Axis 172 Nazi Germany during the Second World War 177 The ‘final solution’ 179 The Nazi New Order in Europe 181 Fascist collaborationism183 6 The phenomenon of fascism 190 Fascism and modernisation 190 Fascism and Marxism 194 The context of fascism197 Glossary 200 Notes 204 Guide to further reading 205 Bibliography 208 Index 211 Illustrations Maps 1 European frontiers and the post-war settlement, 1919–37 2 2 European governments, 1919–37 3 Figures 1 Corneliu Zelea Codreanu 42 2 ‘If You Tolerate This, Your Children will be Next’ poster 164 3 ‘El Generalismo’ poster 165 4 Leon Degrelle 185 5 Ferenc Szálasi 188 Abbreviations AKS Akateeminen Karjala-Seura [Academic Karelia Society (Finland)] ANI Associazione Nazionale Italiana [Italian Nationalist Association] BUF British Union of Fascists CAUR Comitato d’Azione per l’Universalità di Roma [Action Committee for the Universality of Rome] CEDA Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas [Spanish Confederation of the Independent Right] CONFINDUSTRIA Confederazione dell’Industria Italiana [Italian Industrialists Confederation] DAF Deutsche Arbeitsfront [German Labour Front] DAP Deutsche Arbeiterpartei [German Workers’ Party] DNSAP Danmarks Nationalsocialistiske Arbejder Parti [Danish National Socialist Workers’ Party] DNSAP Deutsche Nationalsozialistische Arbeiterpartei [German National Socialist Workers’ Party] DNVP Deutschnationale Volkspartei [German National People’s Party] FE de las JONS Falange Española de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional- Sindacalista [Spanish Phalanx of National Syndicalist Assault Groups] FET Falange Española Tradicionalista [Traditionalist Spanish Phalanx] FR Fédération Républicaine [Republican Federation (France)] GESTAPO Geheime Staatspolizei [Secret State Police (Germany)] GIL Gioventù Italiana del Littorio [Italian Youth of the Lictors] IKL Isänmaallinen Kansanliike [People’s Patriotic Movement (Finland)] JAP Juventud de Acción Popular [Youth for Popular Action (Spain)] Abbreviations xi KPD Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands [German Communist Party] LANC League of National Christian Defence (Romania) MVSN Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale [Voluntary National Security Militia (Italy)] NCP National Christian Party (Romania) NPP National Peasants Party (Romania) NS Nasjonal Samling [National Unity (Norway)] NSB Nationaal-Socialistische Beweging [National Socialist Movement (Netherlands)] NSDAP Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei [National Socialist German Workers’ Party, or Nazi Party] NU Nederlandse Unie [United Netherlands] ONB Opera Nazionale Balilla [National Balilla Organisation (Italy)] OND Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro [National Afterwork Organisation (Italy)] PCF Parti Communiste Français [French Communist Party] PNF Partito Nazionale Fascista [National Fascist Party (Italy)] PPF Parti Populaire Français [French Popular Party] PPI Partito Popolare Italiano [Italian Popular Party] PSF Parti Social Français [French Social Party] PSI Partito Socialista Italiano [Italian Socialist Party] SA Sturmabteilung [Storm Troops (Germany)] SD Sicherheitsdienst [Security Service (Germany)] SDAP Sociaal-Democratische Arbeiders Partij [Social Democratic Workers’ Party (Netherlands)] SFIO Section Française de l’Internationale Ouvrière [French Section of the Workers’ International (French Socialist Party)] SIPO Sicherheitspolizei [Security Police (Germany)] SNU Sveriges Nationella Ungdomsförbund [Swedish National Youth League] SPD Sozialdemokratische Parti Deutschlands [German Social Democratic Party] SS Schutz Staffeln [Protection Units (Germany)] VNV Vlaamsch Nationaal Verbond [Flemish National League] Acknowledgements The Publishers would like to thank the following organisations for granting permission to reproduce material in this book: Yad Vashem Archives, Jerusalem, for the photograph of Corneliu Codreanu. The Photo Collection of the Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, for the reproduction of the photo of Ferenc Szálasi, the original of which appeared in Magyar Futár on 8 November 1944. The Imperial War Museum, London, for the two Spanish Civil War posters. Every effort has been made to trace ownership of copyright and adhere to publishing conventions. We will be glad to make any suitable arrangements with copyright holders whom it has not been possible to contact. Chronology 1890–1914 1890 Publication of Langbehn’s Rembrandt as Teacher. 1893 Foundation of the Pan-German League. 1895 Publication of Le Bon’s Psychology of Crowds. 1898 Barrès coins the term ‘socialist nationalism’ in a French elec- tion campaign. 1899 Maurras founds Action Française. 1901 Les Jaunes (‘yellow unions’) become a national union movement in France. 1908 Publication of Sorel’s Reflections on Violence; Papini, Prezzolini and Soffici found the journal La Voce in Florence, Italy. 1909 Marinetti issues his ‘Futurist Manifesto’. 1910 Corradini and Federzoni found the Italian Nationalist Associ- ation. 1911–12 Meetings of the Cercle Proudhon. 1914 August Outbreak of the First World War. November Mussolini is expelled from the Socialist party, and joins the interventionist campaign in Italy. 1915 May Italy enters the war on the side of Britain, France and Russia against Austro-Hungary and Germany. 1917 February The first Russian revolution: the Tsar is overthrown. April The USA enters the war on the Allied side. September Formation of the nationalist pro-war