Culture as a commodity? The cultural dynamics of Indigenous tourism in the Far North East of Queensland, Australia Della-ria Jay Middleton MA, MSc A thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2018 School of Social Sciences Abstract Indigenous tourism in Australia has been cited as a potential economic development tool by the Council of Australian Government’s (COAG’s) ‘Closing the Gap’ (2007) policy. This focus on improving the economic circumstances of Indigenous people through tourism does not take into consideration the cultural dimensions and the cultural distinctiveness of Indigenous tourism. Building on the findings of anthropology and tourism studies literature, this thesis highlights the need for a comprehensive understanding of the effects Indigenous tourism has on Indigenous culture. This thesis examines the cultural dynamics of Indigenous tourism for those participating in this study that is situated in Far North East of Queensland, centred around Cairns. This thesis asks: How is Indigenous participation in tourism enterprises affecting Indigenous culture and what are the cultural dynamics of Indigenous tourism businesses? The key conceptual focus of the thesis relates to the question of commodification. Is Indigenous culture being commodified by Aboriginal participation in tourism? How is Indigenous participation in tourism affecting Aboriginal perceptions of cultural authenticity? What do non-Indigenous tourists view as authentic Aboriginal culture? This thesis draws on data collected during fieldwork in Far North East Queensland between September-November 2016 encompassing 49 interviews conducted with a mix of Indigenous research participants involved in tourism and non-Indigenous domestic and international tourists. The results reveal that cultural aspirations are as important as economic gains for those Indigenous people involved in tourism enterprise. Marketplace expectations held by tourist information centre employees, as well as these employees cultural/unconscious biases, can influence the success of an Indigenous tourism business. Touristic perceptions of Indigenous authenticity and the portrayal of Indigenous culture can affect the sense of agency of Indigenous people involved in tourism, as culture is commodified in its use as an economic development tool. These conclusions indicate that policy-makers need to take into consideration a larger range of issues than just economic gain in relation to Indigenous involvement in tourism. 1 Declaration by author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, financial support and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my higher degree by research candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis and have sought permission from co-authors for any jointly authored works included in the thesis. 2 Publications included in this thesis “No publications included”. Submitted manuscripts included in this thesis “No manuscripts submitted for publication”. Other publications during candidature “No other publications”. Contributions by others to the thesis “No contributions by others”. Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree “No works submitted towards another degree have been included in this thesis”. Research Involving Human or Animal Subjects The Bellberry Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) approval for ‘Culture as a commodity? The cultural dynamics of Indigenous tourism in the Far North East of Queensland, Australia’. Approval No: 2016-06-516 (see Appendix 1). 3 Acknowledgments Firstly, I would like to thank the members of the Kuku Yalanji, Djabugay and Nugal- warra Aboriginal family groups. Without the overwhelming generosity of their time and comments about traditional storytelling and answers to my many questions, the completion of this thesis would not have been possible. One of my Indigenous research participants passed away while I was writing up this thesis and I am grateful for the time I was able to spend with her. My heartfelt wishes go out to all of her family members. I would also like to thank my sister Janice Bryant-Arthur for her unwavering support throughout the whole process from the start to the finish of this project and David Arthur for his initial proofreading of first and then subsequent drafts. My thanks must also go to Jim Vallely and Marilyn Vallely for providing guidance in the final processes of this study. The thesis benefited from comments made by Sally Babidge and Kim de Rijke. I am very grateful to Geoff Buchanan for his mentoring at the beginning of this project and Arnar Arnarson and Rob Wishart for their continued guidance throughout. The gratitude I feel towards my supervisors David Trigger and Richard Martin is boundless and difficult to express, as they offered their support both pastorally and academically while I navigated some very personal trials during this research study project. 4 Financial support This research was supported by the School of Social Science Research Higher Degree Fieldwork Bursary. Keywords Australia, anthropology, business, commodity, culture, development, economic, Indigenous tourism. Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classifications (ANZSRC) ANZSRC code: 160104, Social and Cultural Anthropology, 100% Fields of Research (FoR) Classification FoR code: 1601, Anthropology, 100% 5 Table of Contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................... 1 Financial support ........................................................................................................ 5 Keywords ................................................................................................................... 5 Table of contents……………………………………………………………………… ....... 6 List of Maps ................................................................................................................ 8 List of Photographs .................................................................................................... 8 Abbreviations ............................................................................................................. 9 Chapter One: Introduction………………………………………………………………...12 Thesis outline .............................................................................................................................. 13 Conceptual framework and literature review ............................................................................... 15 Methods and Methodology ......................................................................................................... 18 Data Collection ............................................................................................................................ 18 Limitations of this research .......................................................................................................... 22 Chapter Two: More than money: the cultural dimensions of Indigenous tourism businesses ............................................................................................................... 24 All the Government sees are the Dollar Signs ............................................................................... 26 From the Rainforest to Bricks and Mortar .................................................................................... 29 It’s Not All About Money, Culture Matters Too ............................................................................ 37 Relatedness in Indigenous Tourism .............................................................................................. 40 Steady Income, Home Ownership, Cultural Significance and Living in a Modern Economy…………..46 Chapter Three: Marketplace Expectations ............................................................... 48 The Anthropology of the Indigenous Tourism Marketplace .......................................................... 49 What is it that Tourists Want? ..................................................................................................... 55 Do the Items for Sale meet Marketplace Expectations? ..............................................................