Running head: SELF-AFFIRMATION AS AN ENVY-REDUCING INTERVENTION i How do you solve a problem like my envy? Self-affirmation as a potential envy-reducing intervention by Darren Christopher Neufeld A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of The University of Manitoba in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Psychology University of Manitoba Winnipeg Copyright © 2017 by Darren Christopher Neufeld SELF-AFFIRMATION AS AN ENVY-REDUCING INTERVENTION ii Abstract Envy is a toxic emotion detrimental to one's health and wellbeing (Smith, Combs, & Thielke, 2008), yet few studies have suggested and none have evaluated possible envy-reducing strategies. Self-affirmation has been shown to reduce the impact of self-integrity threats and defensive processing (Cohen & Sherman, 2014), suggesting likely benefit when applied to envy. The present study (N = 209) examined whether completing a brief self-affirmation value essay (Cohen, Aronson, & Steele, 2000) attenuated student participants' self-reported envy feelings and potentially envy-motivated aggressive behaviour (non-cooperation) toward an ostensibly smarter and financially advantaged rival student in the laboratory, relative to a no-affirmation control condition. A one-month follow-up study (N = 169) investigated whether the self-affirmation intervention (vs. control) promoted durable effects in daily life, such as when recalling an intense past-month instance of envy. Potential mediators (self-construal, mood) were examined to illuminate mechanisms underlying self-affirmation effects. Prospective moderators (dispositional envy, self-compassion, vulnerable and grandiose narcissism, self-esteem, entitlement, and sex) were assessed to determine whether individuals most psychologically vulnerable to envy threat derived greater benefit from the intervention. Results demonstrated that self-affirmation significantly curbed students' self-reported envy feelings toward an advantaged rival relative to controls, particularly for students with elevated dispositional envy or low dispositional self- compassion. Affirmed participants also reported greater use of two recommended coping strategies in daily life and having found these to be more helpful, relative to controls. However, self-affirmation did not promote higher rates of cooperation with a rival student or insulate students against experiences of envy at one-month follow-up. Overall, the findings support the utility of a brief self-affirmation intervention in reducing situational feelings of envy. Research SELF-AFFIRMATION AS AN ENVY-REDUCING INTERVENTION iii considerations involving assessment and reduction of potentially envy-driven behaviours, promoting durable self-affirmation effects, and investigate intermediary variables to explain treatment effects are discussed. Future directions for self-affirmation research are proposed for social and clinical psychology domains. Keywords: self-affirmation, envy, narcissism, cooperation, self-compassion SELF-AFFIRMATION AS AN ENVY-REDUCING INTERVENTION iv Acknowledgements I would like to extend my gratitude to several individuals who have played an important role in helping me take this project to completion. To my advisor, Dr. Ed Johnson, I have long appreciated your thoughtful advice, encouragement, and intellectual curiosity. Thank you for mentoring me on this journey. To my advisory committee members both present and past, Drs. Shaelyn Strachan, Matt Keough, Dan Bailis, Michael Ellery, and Maria Medved, thank you for your research guidance, enthusiasm, and constructive feedback along the way. I am also grateful to my research assistant, Alexis Unrau, who saved me many tedious hours of data entry. I would like to acknowledge the funding support I have received from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and University of Manitoba throughout my doctoral degree. Finally, I am extremely grateful for the support and encouragement of family and friends over these past years. A special mention for my wife, Claire, for her cheerleading and encouragement to finish this manuscript and helping me to carve out dedicated writing time. SELF-AFFIRMATION AS AN ENVY-REDUCING INTERVENTION v Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... v List of Tables .............................................................................................................................. viii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... ix Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1 Defining Envy ........................................................................................................................... 2 Self-evaluation maintenance model ...................................................................................... 3 Consequences of Envy .............................................................................................................. 4 Narcissism and envy .............................................................................................................. 7 Antidotes to Envy ................................................................................................................... 10 Self-Affirmation ...................................................................................................................... 14 Recursive effects ................................................................................................................. 16 Limits to self-affirmation .................................................................................................... 17 Rationale for applying self-affirmation interventions to envy ............................................ 18 Overview of the Present Study .............................................................................................. 22 Mediators of Self-Affirmation ............................................................................................... 22 Level of self-construal ......................................................................................................... 23 Mood.................................................................................................................................... 24 Moderators of Self-Affirmation ............................................................................................ 24 Self-esteem .......................................................................................................................... 25 Narcissism ........................................................................................................................... 26 Self-compassion .................................................................................................................. 28 Dispositional envy ............................................................................................................... 28 Entitlement .......................................................................................................................... 29 Sex ....................................................................................................................................... 29 Multimodal Measurement of Envy and Related Phenomena ............................................ 29 Hypotheses .............................................................................................................................. 34 Method ......................................................................................................................................... 35 Overview of Procedure .......................................................................................................... 35 Participants ............................................................................................................................. 37 Materials ................................................................................................................................. 38 Mass testing measures ......................................................................................................... 38 Part 1: Dispositional measures ............................................................................................ 39 Part 2: Laboratory measures ................................................................................................ 41 Part 3: Online measures ....................................................................................................... 48 Experimental Procedure ........................................................................................................ 50 SELF-AFFIRMATION AS AN ENVY-REDUCING INTERVENTION vi Ethical Considerations ........................................................................................................... 58 Analysis Strategy ...................................................................................................................