1 Wipi Grammar Essentials Written by Anne Dondorp and Jae-Wook Shim, January 1997 Formatted for online publishing by Ruth Wester, November 2013 2 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 7 1.1 General Information ................................................................................................................................... 7 1.2 Conventions Used ....................................................................................................................................... 8 1.3 Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................................. 8 2. PHONOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION ............................................................................................. 10 2.1 Tentative Orthography ............................................................................................................................. 10 2.2 Morphophonemics ................................................................................................................................... 11 2.2.1 Epenthesis ................................................................................................................................................ 11 2.2.2 Deletion .................................................................................................................................................... 11 2.2.3 Assimilation .............................................................................................................................................. 11 2.2.4 Metathesis ................................................................................................................................................ 12 2.2.5 Fusion ....................................................................................................................................................... 12 3. WORD LEVEL ............................................................................................................................... 14 3.1 Nouns ....................................................................................................................................................... 14 3.1.1 Noun Stem ................................................................................................................................................ 14 3.1.1.1 simple noun stem .............................................................................................................................. 14 3.1.1.2 complex noun stems ......................................................................................................................... 14 3.1.1.2.1 Derivation .................................................................................................................................. 14 3.1.1.2.2 compound nouns ....................................................................................................................... 16 3.1.1.3 loan words/borrowed words ............................................................................................................ 18 3.1.2 Noun Class ................................................................................................................................................ 18 3.1.2.1 common nouns ................................................................................................................................. 18 3.1.2.2 proper nouns ..................................................................................................................................... 19 3.1.3 Gender ...................................................................................................................................................... 20 3.1.4 Number ..................................................................................................................................................... 21 3.2 Case .......................................................................................................................................................... 21 3.2.1 Core Case Markers .................................................................................................................................... 22 3.2.1.1 absolutive marker ............................................................................................................................. 22 3.2.1.2 nominative marker ............................................................................................................................ 24 3.2.2 Peripheral Case Markers........................................................................................................................... 28 3.3 Verbs ........................................................................................................................................................ 29 3.3.1 Verb Classes .............................................................................................................................................. 29 3.3.2 Verb Root .................................................................................................................................................. 30 3.3.2.1 simple verb root ................................................................................................................................ 30 3.3.3 Agreement ................................................................................................................................................ 30 3.3.3.1 subject agreement ............................................................................................................................ 30 3.3.3.2 absolutive agreement ....................................................................................................................... 32 3.3.3.2.1 vowel alternation ....................................................................................................................... 32 3 3.3.3.2.2 absolutive prefixes ..................................................................................................................... 34 3.3.3.2.3 absolutive suffix ......................................................................................................................... 36 3.3.3.2.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 36 3.3.4 Tense ........................................................................................................................................................ 37 3.3.4.1 present tense .................................................................................................................................... 37 3.3.4.2 yesterday past ................................................................................................................................... 38 3.3.4.3 remote past ....................................................................................................................................... 38 3.3.4.4 Future ................................................................................................................................................ 39 3.3.5 Aspect ....................................................................................................................................................... 39 3.3.5.1 frozen forms ...................................................................................................................................... 39 3.3.5.2 intensive and mitigative aspect ......................................................................................................... 39 3.3.5.3 benefactive aspect ............................................................................................................................ 41 3.3.5.4 repetitive aspect ............................................................................................................................... 41 3.3.5.5 combination of aspects ..................................................................................................................... 41 3.3.5.6 continuous aspect ............................................................................................................................. 42 3.3.6 Mood ........................................................................................................................................................ 43 3.3.6.1 status(realis/irrealis) ......................................................................................................................... 43 3.3.6.2 Infinitive ............................................................................................................................................ 43 3.3.7 Illocutionary Force .................................................................................................................................... 44 3.3.7.1 Imperative ......................................................................................................................................... 44 3.3.7.2 Prohibitive ......................................................................................................................................... 45 3.3.7.3 Hortative ..........................................................................................................................................