BUDDHISM/ZEN PHILOSOPHY/JAPANESE HISTORY (Continued from front flap) IMPERIAL-WAY ZEN IMPERIAL-WAY Of related The Record of Linji his own argument that Imperial-Way Zen interest Translation and commentary by Ruth Fuller Sasaki During the first half of the twentieth centu- can best be understood as a modern instance Edited by Thomas Yūhō Kirchner ry, Zen Buddhist leaders contributed active- 2008, 520 pages of Buddhism’s traditional role as protector ly to Japanese imperialism, giving rise to Cloth ISBN: 978-0-8248-2821-9 of the realm. Turning to postwar Japan, Ives what has been termed “Imperial-Way Zen” examines the extent to which Zen leaders “This new edition will be the translation of choice for Western Zen communities, (Kōdō Zen). Its foremost critic was priest, have reflected on their wartime political college courses, and all who want to know that the translation they are reading is professor, and activist Ichikawa Hakugen stances and started to construct a critical faithful to the original. Professional scholars of Buddhism will revel in the sheer (1902–1986), who spent the decades follow- wealth of information packed into footnotes and bibliographical notes. Unique Zen social ethic. Finally, he considers the ing Japan’s surrender almost single-hand- among translations of Buddhist texts, the footnotes to the Kirchner edition con- resources Zen might offer its contemporary tain numerous explanations of grammatical constructions. Translators of classi- edly chronicling Zen’s support of Japan’s leaders as they pursue what they themselves cal Chinese will immediately recognize the Kirchner edition constitutes a small imperialist regime and pressing the issue have identified as a pressing task: ensuring handbook of classical and colloquial Chinese grammar. It sets a new standard in of Buddhist war responsibility. Ichikawa that henceforth Zen will avoid becoming scholarly translation of Buddhist primary texts.” focused his critique on the Zen approach to embroiled in international adventurism and —Victor Sōgen Hori, McGill University religious liberation, the political ramifica- instead dedicate itself to the promotion of tions of Buddhist metaphysical constructs, peace and human rights. “In the late 1950s, when I was a student in Chinese studies in Kyoto, I worked the traditional collaboration between Bud- with Mrs. Sasaki on her translation of The Record of Linji. Every time we went Lucid and balanced in its methodology dhism and governments in East Asia, the over it, we hoped it was at last in publishable form. But ‘Needs more work!’ was and well grounded in textual analysis, Impe- always her dour comment, and back it would go into her files. In 1961 Mrs. Sasaki philosophical system of Nishida Kitarō rial-Way Zen will attract scholars, students, and I parted company, and not long afterward she died. In 1975 a version of the (1876–1945), and the vestiges of State Shin- IVES and others interested in Buddhism, ethics, translation came out, but without the elaborate annotation she had envisioned. to in postwar Japan. Now, thanks to the efforts of the meticulous and indefatigable Mr. Kirchner and IMPERIAL-WAY ZEN Zen practice, and the cooptation of religion Despite the importance of Ichikawa’s his supporters, we have a new version of that earlier translation. With Mrs. Sasa- in the service of violence and imperialism. writings, this volume is the first by any ki’s old notes put into finished form, along with the ones she never got around scholar to outline his critique. In addition to writing, here is this important Zen classic with all the annotation one could ICHIKAWA HAKUGEN’S CRITIQUE AND desire, in what will doubtless be the definitive edition for many years to come.” to detailing the actions and ideology of —Burton Watson LINGERING QUESTIONS FOR BUDDHIST ETHICS Imperial-Way Zen and Ichikawa’s ripostes to them, Christopher Ives offers his own reflections on Buddhist ethics in light of the phenomenon. He devotes chapters to out- lining Buddhist nationalism from the 1868 Christopher Ives is professor and chair of Jacket illustration: This portrait of Bodhidharma, the founder of Zen, is accompanied by a quote traditionally Meiji Restoration to 1945 and summariz- religious studies at Stonehill College. attributed to him: “pointing directly to the mind; seeing into one’s nature and becoming a buddha.” ing Ichikawa’s arguments about the causes Jacket design: Julie Matsuo-Chun of Imperial-Way Zen. After assessing Brian ISBN 978-0-8248-3331-2 Victoria’s claim that Imperial-Way Zen 9 0 0 0 0 was caused by the traditional connection UNIVERSITY of between Zen and the samurai, Ives presents HAWAI‘I PRESS 9 780824 833312 Honolulu, Hawai‘i 96822-1888 www.uhpress.hawaii.edu CHRISTOPHER IVES (Continued on back flap) Imperial-Way Zen Imperial-Way Zen ICHIKAWA HAKUGEN’S CRITIQUE AND LINGERING QUESTIONS FOR BUDDHIST ETHICS Christopher Ives UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI‘I PRESS Honolulu © university of hawai‘i press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America 14 13 12 11 10 09 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ives, Christopher, 1954- Imperial-Way Zen : Ichikawa Hakugen’s critique and lingering questions for Buddhist ethics / Christopher Ives. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8248-3331-2 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Zen Buddhism--Political aspects--Japan--History-- 20th century. 2. Buddhism and state--Japan--History--20th century. 3. Nationalism--Religious aspects--Zen Buddhism. 4. Ichikawa, Hakugen, 1902-1986. 5. Buddhist ethics-- Japan--History--20th century. I. Title. BQ9262.9.J3I87 2009 294.3’92709520904--dc22 2009010155 University of Hawai‘i Press books are printed on acid-free paper and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Council on Library Resources. book design by julie matsuo-chun printed by the maple-vail book manufacturing group To my parents, Marilla and Bud, whose love has always supported me on my journeys. CONTENTS acknowledgments ix introduction 1 1 Useful Buddhism, 1868–1945 13 2 Peace of Mind at Any Price 54 3 Indebted in Our Proper Places 83 4 Modern Buddhism for the Protection of the Realm 101 5 Quick Conversions and Slow Apologies in Postwar Japan 128 6 From Collaboration to Criticism 156 7 Absent Ethics, Present Ethics 167 notes 189 bibliography 245 bibliography of ichikawa hakugen’s major works 261 index 263 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am grateful for everything Pat Crosby and her staff at the University of Hawai‘i Press, as well as copy editor Drew Bryan, have done to bring this book to publica- tion. While working on the manuscript I also benefited from a number of col- leagues in Japan. For meeting with me there, answering my questions, or send- ing me materials, I thank Tom Kirchner, Tokiwa Gishin, Abe Masao, Ishii Kōsei, Nishimura Eshin, Ichikawa Hiroshi, Yamaori Tetsuo, Tsurumi Shunsuke, Yanagida Seizan, Kōno Taitsū Rōshi, Jeff Shore, Kirita Kiyohide, Horio Tsutomu, Nakao Hi- roshi, Maeda Naomi, Ueda Shizuteru, Tokiyuki Nobuhara, Dennis Hirota, Inoue Takami, and Akizuki Ryōmin. I especially want to thank Wayne Yokoyama, who on numerous occasions helped me with my research on this book and over many years has served as the local bodhisattva for scholars visiting Kyoto. I am also indebted to an array of colleagues outside of Japan. Richard Jaffe com- mented on a draft of chapter one and Suzanne Barnett critiqued a section of chapter two. For their assistance and comments on the manuscript or responses to related conference presentations, I also thank Steve Heine, John Nelson, Bill LaFleur, Sal- lie King, Jim Heisig, John Maraldo, Brian Victoria, Dan Leighton, John Makransky, Dennis Lishka, John Dower, Stuart Lachs, Bob Sharf, Jamie Hubbard, Ina Buitendijk, Helen Hardacre, Mark Blum, Ken Pyle, Cameron Hurst, John Treat, Herb Bix, Ken Kraft, Dale Wright, Micah Auerback, Jin Park, Michiko Yusa, Jackie Stone, Hal Roth, Youru Wang, Jay Ford, Ruben Habito, Janine Sawada, Chris Queen, Ryū’ichi Abe, Tak Fujitani, Alex Vesey, Stuart Smithers, Karl Fields, and Andrew Goble, among others. Needless to say, though these and other colleagues have contributed im- mensely to my writing of this book, any mistakes or inaccuracies herein are solely my responsibility. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS At various stages this project was also supported by grants from the Ful- bright-Hays Faculty Research Abroad Program (1993), Social Science Research Council (1998), the National Endowment for the Humanities (1998), the Univer- sity of Puget Sound (1991), and Stonehill College (2006). I thank my administra- tive assistant, Wendy Hanawalt, for her help inputting changes into one draft of the manuscript. I am also grateful to the Reischauer Institute for Japanese Studies, whose generosity has enabled me to work in the Harvard-Yenching Library. Several published articles originally grew out of the manuscript, and I have folded them back into it. I thank Steve Heine, editor of Japan Studies Review, for permission to integrate into chapter seven a few pages of “Wartime Nationalism and Peaceful Representation: Issues Surrounding the Multiple Zens of Modern Japan” (2001). I thank Nitta Tomomichi and the other editors of the Eastern Bud- dhist for giving me permission to use in chapters four and five portions of “Pro- tect the Dharma, Protect the Country: The Continuing Question of Buddhist War Responsibility” (XXXIII, no. 2; 2001). Chapters three and seven include portions of three articles I published in the Journal of Buddhist Ethics: “What’s Compassion Got to Do with It? Determinants of Zen Social Ethics in Japan” (vol. 12, 2005); “Not Buying in to Words and Letters: Zen, Ideology, and Prophetic Critique” (13, 2006); and “Deploying the Dharma: Reflections on the Methodology of Construc- tive Buddhist Ethics” (16, 2009). I am also grateful to John Eusden, a true mentor, who introduced me to Zen thirty-five years ago at Williams College, and to Hiroshi and Michiko Uchibori, who with great warmth and generosity introduced me directly to the cultural rich- ness of Japan.