Migrant Smuggling in Asia A Thematic Review of Literature April 2012 1 Knowledge Product: MIGRANT SMUGGLING IN ASIA A !ematic Review of Literature Printed: Bangkok, April 2012 Authorship: United Nations O!ce on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Copyright © 2012, UNODC e-ISBN: 978-974-680-331-1 "is publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-pro#t purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. UNODC would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from the United Nations O!ce on Drugs and Crime. Applications for such permission, with a statement of purpose and intent of the reproduction, should be addressed to UNODC, Regional Centre for East Asia and the Paci#c. Cover photo: Courtesy of CBSA. "e photo shows a ship that was used in a migrant smuggling operation from Asia to North America. Product Feedback: Comments on the report are welcome and can be sent to: Coordination and Analysis Unit (CAU) Regional Centre for East Asia and the Paci#c United Nations Building, 3 rd Floor Rajdamnern Nok Avenue Bangkok 10200, "ailand Fax: +66 2 281 2129 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.unodc.org/eastasiaandpaci#c/ UNODC gratefully acknowledges the #nancial contribution of the Government of Australia that enabled the research for and the production of this publication. Disclaimers: "is report has not been formally edited. "e contents of this publication do not necessarily re$ect the views or policies of UNODC and neither do they imply any endorsement. "e designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNODC concerning the legal status of any country, territory or city or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Migrant Smuggling in Asia A !ematic Review of Literature A publication of the Coordination and Analysis Unit of the Regional Centre for East Asia and the Paci#c United Nations O"ce on Drugs and Crime Table of Contents Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................. 1 Abbreviations and acronyms ................................................................................................................ 2 List of diagrams and tables ................................................................................................................... 5 Executive summary ............................................................................................................................... 6 Policy recommendations for improving evidence-based knowledge .................................................... 11 Country situation overview ................................................................................................................. 12 Introducing the research methodology ............................................................................................... 24 Chapter One: Cross-country #ndings by thematic issues .................................................................... 31 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 31 How are migrant smuggling and tra"cking in persons conceptualized in the literature? .............. 32 What methodologies are being used in research on migrant smuggling and irregular migration? .. 34 What information is available about stocks and $ows of irregular and smuggled migrants? .......... 37 What are the major routes involved in irregular migration and migrant smuggling? ..................... 41 What is known about the pro#les and motives of migrant smugglers? ........................................... 41 What is known about the pro#le of irregular and smuggled migrants? .......................................... 44 What is known about the nature or characteristics of relationships between migrant smugglers and smuggled migrants? ................................................................................................................. 45 What is known about the organization of migrant smugglers? ...................................................... 48 What is known about the modus operandi of smuggling? .............................................................. 50 What is known about migrant smuggling fees and their mobilization? .......................................... 56 What is known about the human and social costs of migrant smuggling? ...................................... 59 Factors that fuel irregular migration and migrant smuggling ........................................................ 62 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 63 Chapter Two: Afghanistan .................................................................................................................. 69 Chapter !ree: Cambodia ................................................................................................................... 83 Chapter Four: China ........................................................................................................................... 93 Chapter Five: India ........................................................................................................................... 115 Chapter Six: Indonesia ...................................................................................................................... 131 Chapter Seven: Lao People’s Democratic Republic ........................................................................... 143 Chapter Eight: Malaysia ................................................................................................................... 153 Chapter Nine: Maldives .................................................................................................................... 163 Chapter Ten: Myanmar ..................................................................................................................... 167 Chapter Eleven: Pakistan .................................................................................................................. 177 Chapter Twelve: Singapore ................................................................................................................ 191 Chapter !irteen: Sri Lanka ............................................................................................................. 197 Chapter Fourteen: !ailand .............................................................................................................. 203 Chapter Fifteen: Viet Nam ................................................................................................................ 215 Annexes ............................................................................................................................................. 223 Annex A: Complete list of databases, catalogues and websites searched ....................................... 225 Annex B: Table of criteria to use for initial bibliographic searches ............................................... 228 Annex C: Key words used in the annotated bibliography ............................................................. 229 An Annotated Bibliography Acknowledgements "is publication was produced by the Regional Centre for East Asia and the Paci#c (RCEAP) of UNODC, under the supervision of Sebastian Baumeister, Coordination and Analysis Unit (CAU, UNODC). Lead researcher: Fiona David (consultant). Research conceptualization, coordination and report preparation: Sebastian Baumeister and Fiona David. Report written by: Introducing the research methodology: Fiona David; Chapter One: Fiona David; Chapter Two: Fiona David, Kenneth Wright (consultant); Chapter "ree: Rebecca Powell (consultant); Chapter Four: Fiona David, Ken- neth Wright; Chapter Five: Rebecca Miller (consultant); Chapter Six: Katherine Rogers (consultant); Chapter Seven: Rebecca Powell; Chapter Eight: Katherine Rogers; Chapter Nine: Rebecca Miller; Chapter Ten: Ken- neth Wright; Chapter Eleven: Rebecca Miller; Chapter Twelve: Katherine Rogers; Chapter "irteen: Rebecca Miller; Chapter Fourteen: Rebecca Powell; Chapter Fifteen: Fiona David, Chapter Fifteen: Fiona David, Kenneth Wright; Executive summary and Country situation overview: Sebastian Baumeister. Editorial and production team: Sebastian Baumeister, Julia Brown (UNODC intern), Fiona David, Karen Emmons (contractor, editing), Ajcharaporn Lorlamai (CAU, UNODC), Collin Piprell (contractor, editing), Siraphob Ruedeeniyomvuth (contractor, design), and Sanya Umasa (CAU, UNODC). Particular appreciation and gratitude for support and advice go to Julia Brown, Elzbieta Gozdziak, Shawn Kelly (UNODC), Janet Smith from the Australian Institute of Criminology, Tun Nay Soe (UNODC), and to the sta% from the Library at the Australian National University. "e publication also bene#ted from the work and expertise of UNODC sta% members around the world. 1 Migrant Smuggling in Asia Abbreviations and Acronyms ARCM Asian Research Center for Migration ARTWAC Action Research on Tra!cking in Women and Children ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations BBC British Broadcasting Corporation