The London School of Economics and Political Science He who touches the weapon becomes other: A Study of Participation in Armed groups In South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo Gauthier Marchais A thesis submitted to the Department of International Development of the London School of Economics and Political Science for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. London, January 2016 1 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgment is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 107 254 words. Gauthier Marchais London, January 2016 2 Table of Contents ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. 7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................... 8 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 17 1.1. The persisting puzzle of participation in armed groups ............................................................... 26 1.1.1. Clarification of concepts ....................................................................................................... 26 1.1.2. Old question, new attention .................................................................................................. 27 1.1.3. Strengths and limitations of current framings of participation ............................................. 29 1.1.4. Articulating different levels of analysis ................................................................................ 32 1.2. Towards a multi-level framing of participation ............................................................................ 34 1.2.1. The political economy of labour mobilization and control ................................................... 35 1.2.2. The “social Architecture” of armed mobilization and control ............................................. 42 1.2.3. Individual dimensions of participation ...................................................................................... 53 1.3. Dissertation Road Map ................................................................................................................. 57 CHAPTER TWO: ARMED MOBILIZATION IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 60 2.1. A brief history of labour mobilization in eastern Congo .............................................................. 61 2.1.1. Pre-colonial political organization in eastern Congo ............................................................ 61 2.1.2. Labour in the colony: The Extractive imperative ................................................................. 63 2.1.3. Political Power and Rebellion after Independence ............................................................... 68 2.2. The Congo Wars .......................................................................................................................... 71 2.2.1. Precursors to the First Congo War ....................................................................................... 72 2.2.2. The AFDL War in eastern Congo ......................................................................................... 74 2.2.3. The Second Congo War of 1998-2003 ...................................................................................... 76 2.2.4. War and Peace in the Post- Sun City era ................................................................................... 78 2.2.5. The post-Goma Conference era ............................................................................................ 81 2.3. Conclusion.................................................................................................................................... 87 CHAPTER THREE: CONSIDERATIONS ON METHODS .................................... 89 3.1. The mixed methods approach....................................................................................................... 89 3.2. Justification of the case ................................................................................................................ 91 3.3. “Understanding” Africa: Ontology and Positionality ................................................................... 92 3.3.1. Fitting Uncomfortable shoes ................................................................................................ 92 3.3.2. The academics of the mirror: The village, the chief and the community .................................. 93 3.4. Researching Armed Conflict: Methodological and Ethical Considerations ................................. 94 3.4.1. Accessing the “field” and respondents ................................................................................. 94 3.4.2. Reconstituting histories of armed mobilization .................................................................... 97 3 3.5. Conclusion.................................................................................................................................. 104 CHAPTER FOUR: GRASSROOTS PROCESSES OF ARMED MOBILIZATION IN THE MAYI-MAYI MOVEMENT ..................................................................... 105 4.1. The Mayi-Mayi Insurgency as a social movement ..................................................................... 107 4.1.1. Strength and modularity of an insurgent repertoire ............................................................ 107 4.2. Social processes of armed mobilization ..................................................................................... 111 4.2.1. Mobilization in Bukavu ...................................................................................................... 111 4.2.2. Mobilization in rural South Kivu ........................................................................................ 118 4.3. Conclusion.................................................................................................................................. 128 CHAPTER FIVE: CAPTURE AND CONTROL IN THE MAI-MAI MOVEMENT .................................................................................................................................. 131 5.1. Centralization and fragmentation of the Mayi-Mayi movement ................................................ 132 5.1.2. Building the Mayi- Mayi Army .......................................................................................... 135 5.2.2. Recruitment as Taxation ..................................................................................................... 139 5.2. Recruitment and Control in a Polarized social Context.............................................................. 142 5.2.1. Recruitment through networks of family and peer ............................................................. 144 5.2.2. Control over recruits ........................................................................................................... 149 5.3. Conclusion.................................................................................................................................. 152 CHAPTER SIX: CISAYURA’S MEN: ARMED MOBILISATION IN THE KALEHE MIDLANDS ............................................................................................ 155 6.1. Background to the Armed Conflict in Kalehe ............................................................................ 156 6.1.1. War and polarization under the AFDL and the RCD ......................................................... 157 6.2. Mobilization and counter-Mobilization under RCD rule ........................................................... 158 6.2.1. The Local Defence mobilization in Mbinga Sud ................................................................ 162 6.2.2. Military integration and the defection ................................................................................ 166 6.3. Cisayura’s mobilization in Lemera and Kasheke ....................................................................... 168 6.3.1. Confusion and counter-insurgency in the aftermath of the defection ................................. 169 6.3.2. Crafting control: Individual and collective processes of participation ............................... 171 6.3.3. The Mayi-Mayi Kalehe and the constitution of a counter-authority .................................. 177 6.4. Conclusion.................................................................................................................................. 182 CHAPTER SEVEN : ARMED MOBILIZATION IN THE HIGHLANDS OF KALEHE .................................................................................................................. 185 7.1. Background to the Highlands Conflicts ..................................................................................... 188 7.1.1. The Highlands: A frontier within a frontier region ............................................................. 188 7.1.2. Land, Taxes, and Political Representation in the Highlands .............................................