2005:31 DOCTORAL T H E SI S Technology, Language and Thought: Extensions of Meaning in the English Lexicon Marlene Johansson Falck L L I M S Linguistics in the Midnight Sun Luleå University of Technology Department of Languages and Culture 2005:31|: 102-1544|: - -- 05⁄31 -- Marlene Johansson Falck Technology, Language, and Thought - Extensions of Meaning in the English Lexicon I Johansson Falck, Marlene (2005) Technology, Language and Thought – Extensions of Meaning in the English Lexicon. Doctoral dissertation no 2005:31. Department of Languages and Culture, Luleå University of Technology. Abstract In this thesis, the relationship between technological innovation and the development of language and thought is analysed. For this purpose, three different fields of technology are investigated: 1) the steam engine, 2) electricity, and 3) motor vehicles, roads and ways. They have all either played an extremely important part in people’s lives, or they are still essential to us. The overall aim is to find out in what ways these inventions and discoveries have helped people to develop abstract thinking and given speakers of English new possibilities to express themselves. Questions being asked are a) if the correlations in experience between the inventions and other domains have motivated new conceptual mappings? b) if the experiences that they provide people with may be used to re-experience certain conceptual mappings, and hence make them more deeply entrenched in people’s minds? and c) if the uses of them as cognitive tools have resulted in meaning extension in the English lexicon? The study is based on metaphoric and metonymic phrases collected from a number of different dictionaries. In the material a large number of metaphorical and metonymic expressions including terms connected to the inventions and discoveries that are part of this thesis are found. As is clear from the expressions, the steam engine, electricity, motor vehicles, roads and ways have all provided us with ample tools for structuring our thoughts, and for conveying our thoughts to others. Primarily, it seems to be the different functions of the discoveries and inventions, or the effects that they have on other objects that have motivated the mappings. In addition to analysing the cognitive role of the inventions that are part of this thesis, some general conclusions concerning the relationship between language, thought and world are suggested. Keywords: cognitive linguistics, cognitive tools, language, English, sense development, meaning extension, thought, metaphors, metonymies, scaffoldings, entrenchment, technology, electricity, steam engines, motor vehicles, roads, ways II Marlene Johansson Falck Technology, Language and Thought – Extensions of Meaning in the English Lexicon To Markus, Arvin, Hilda and Hanna III The printing of this volume has been funded by the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Luleå University of Technology. Copyright © the author Cover Illustration: The logo of the research program Linguistics in the Midnight Sun at the Department of Languages and Culture. Editing and computer typesetting: Ulf Magnusson Printed in Sweden by the Printing Office of Luleå University of Technology IV TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements IX CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. Technology, language and thought 1 1.2. Why technological metaphors? 3 1.3. Aims 5 7 1.4. Method and material 9 1.5. Influential works 10 1.6. Orthographic conventions 11 CHAPTER 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 11 2.1. Metaphor 11 2.1.1. Introductory 2.1.2. The traditional view of literal and metaphorical 12 meaning 2.1.3. The interaction theory 13 2.1.4. The conceptual theory 15 2.1.5. Discussion 19 2.1.5.1. The locus of metaphor 19 2.1.5.2. Language and thought 21 2.1.5.3. Similar processes 22 2.1.5.4. Literal and metaphorical language 22 2.1.5.5. Metaphor processing 24 2.2. The cognitive context of metaphors. 30 2.2.1. The nature of language, metonymy and meaning 31 2.2.2. Mental spaces and cognitive domains 35 2.2.3. Conceptual blending 36 2.3. Summary and conclusion 40 V CHAPTER 3. HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY 41 3.1. Introductory 41 3.2. The industrial revolution 42 3.2.1. Factors behind the revolution 42 3.2.1.1. Political changes and industrial investments 42 3.2.1.2. Attitudes 43 3.2.1.3. Agricultural improvements and mobile labour 44 3.2.2. The textile industry 45 3.2.2.1.The emergence of the factory system 45 3.2.2.2. Cotton - the spear head of the revolution 46 3.2.2.3. Interaction with other industries 47 3.2.3. Deforestation and an increase in the use of coal 47 3.2.4. The development of the iron industry 48 3.2.5. The steam engine 49 3.2.5.1. The first generation of steam engines 50 3.2.5.2. High pressure engines th 52 3.3. The 19 century 52 3.3.1. Progress, technology and people 52 3.3.2. Transportation 54 3.3.3. Telegraphy 55 3.3.4. The textile industry and the Jacquard loom 56 3.3.5. The development of machine tools 57 3.3.6. Prerequisites for mass production 58 3.3.7. Electricity 58 3.3.7.1. From knowledge to application 58 3.3.7.2. The electrical industry 60 3.3.8. The development of automobiles th 61 3.4. The 20 century 62 3.4.1. The turn of the century 62 3.4.2. Technology and science 63 3.4.3. Transportation 64 3.4.3.1. Motor vehicles, roads and ways 64 3.4.3.2. Rail and water transport 65 3.4.3.3. Aviation 66 3.4.4. Electronic communications 68 3.4.5. Energy sources 68 3.4.5.1. Lighting, heating and conventional sources 68 3.4.5.2. Nuclear power 70 3.4.6. Agricultural developments 71 3.4.7. The computer 72 3.5. Summary and conclusion 73 VI CHAPTER 4. THE STEAM ENGINE 75 4.1. Introductory 75 4.2. Concepts within the domain of the steam engine as conceptualised by means of other domains 77 4.3. The form steam 79 4.3.1. The emission of a substance 80 80 4.3.1.1. Literal uses 83 4.3.1.2. Figurative uses 84 4.3.2. The substance that steams 84 4.3.2.1. Figurative uses before the steam engine 86 4.3.2.2. Animate substances that steam 4.3.3. Metonymic and metaphorical mappings and the development 89 of the form steam 4.3.3.1. The noun steam 89 4.3.3.2. The intransitive verb steam 98 4.3.3.3. The transitive verb steam 99 4.3.4. The relationship between the sense development of steam and the invention of the steam engine 102 4.4. The cognitive function of the steam engine 105 4.4.1. ANGER and other PENT-UP EMOTIONS 106 4.4.2. The steam engine as a source of energy 111 4.4.3. Sex and intoxication 114 4.4.4. Miscellaneous 115 4.5. Summary and conclusion 116 CHAPTER 5. ELECTRICITY 118 5.1. Introductory 118 5.2. Concepts within the domain of electricity as conceptualised by means of other domains 120 5.3. Electricity – a source domain 127 5.3.1. Words and expressions designating human action and human emotion – Introductory 128 5.3.2. Group 1. The state of being electrified 131 5.3.3. Group 2. When the current goes into the body or when it is broken 134 5.3.4. Group 3. The electrification of other people 147 5.3.5. Group 4. People operating machines 151 5.4. The cognitive function of electricity 152 5.5. Summary and conclusion 161 VII CHAPTER 6. MOTOR VEHICLES, ROADS AND WAYS 163 6.1. Introductory 163 6.2. Concepts within the domain of motor vehicles as conceptualised by means of other domains 164 6.2.1. The vehicles 164 6.2.2. Movement by means of a motor vehicle 169 6.2.3. The different parts of a motor car 173 6.2.4. Different traffic systems and the ways on which motorised vehicles are driven 178 6.3. The cognitive function of motor vehicles, parts of vehicles, movement by means of vehicles, and roads and ways. 184 6.3.1. (Motor) vehicles 184 6.3.2. Parts of vehicles 187 6.3.3. An act connected with the movement of a vehicle 189 6.3.4. Roads and ways 190 6.3.4.1. Roads and ways in general 196 6.3.4.2. Today’s roads and ways 217 6.4. Summary and conclusion 220 CHAPTER 7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 222 Works cited and referred to 233 Appendix 1. Metaphorical and/or metonymic expressions including either of the terms 238 road and way VIII Acknowledgements If A PURPOSEFUL ACTIVITY IS A JOURNEY, WRITING A THESIS IS SAILING AROUND THE WORLD IN A RATHER SMALL BOAT. To me, the sailor, the journey has been fascinating, demanding and time-consuming at the same time. To the people around me, however, it has primarily been something that has occupied my time or something that I have needed assistance with. I gratefully acknowledge the help and encouragement of a large number of people, who have all, in one way or another, contributed to the fulfilment of this thesis. First of all, a wealth of gratitude to my parents Gunilla and Jan-Olov, who gave me the best childhood a person can possibly have, taught me always to do my best, and made me feel safe and strong throughout my life.