AN INTRODUCTION TO DENA’INA GRAMMAR: THE KENAI (OUTER INLET) DIALECT by Alan Boraas, Ph.D. Professor of Anthropology Kenai Peninsula College Based on reference material by: Peter Kalifornsky James Kari, Ph.D. and Joan Tenenbaum, Ph.D. June 30, 2009 revisions May 22, 2010 Page ii Dedication This grammar guide is dedicated to the 20th century children who had their mouth’s washed out with soap or were beaten in the Kenai Territorial School for speaking Dena’ina. And to Peter Kalifornsky, one of those children, who gave his time, knowledge, and friendship so others might learn. Acknowledgement The information in this introductory grammar is based on the sources cited in the “References” section but particularly on James Kari’s draft of Dena’ina Verb Dictionary and Joan Tenenbaum’s 1978 Morphology and Semantics of the Tanaina Verb. Many of the examples are taken directly from these documents but modified to fit the Kenai or Outer Inlet dialect. All of the stem set and verb theme information is from James Kari’s electronic Dena’ina verb dictionary draft. Students should consult the originals for more in-depth descriptions or to resolve difficult constructions. In addition much of the material in this document was initially developed in various language learning documents developed by me, many in collaboration with Peter Kalifornsky or Donita Peter for classes taught at Kenai Peninsula College or the Kenaitze Indian Tribe between 1988 and 2006, and this document represents a recent installment of a progressively more complete grammar. Anyone interested in Dena’ina language and culture owes a huge debt of gratitude to Dr. James Kari for his years of Dena’ina language research. More than any one person, he has kept a dying language from extinction. I would like to thank Dr. Kari for use of unpublished verb theme and stem set material and for reviewing earlier drafts of this document. Any errors are my own. I would like to thank Dana Verrengia and Michael Christian who helped with many of the translations on which this document is based, and Ms. Verrengia for editorial review of this document. Kenai Dena’ina language revitalization efforts would not have been possible without the vision and persistence of Alexandra “Sasha” Lindgren, Cultural & Educational Department Director of the Kenaitze Indian Tribe. Ms. Lindgren understands that embedded in the words, stories and grammar of Dena’ina are timeless truths that are as much a part of the fabric of the Kenai Peninsula as are the mountains and the rivers. Much more work needs to be done, but this grammar represents a resource for beginning and intermediate language learners. Alan Boraas Kenai Peninsula College Soldotna, Alaska June, 30, 2009 Page iii This document is part of a Kahtnuht’ana Qenaga language project with funding from the following sources: 2008-2009 Cook Inlet Tribal Council (Cook Inlet Regional, Inc.) U.S Department of Agriculture CFDA 10.6710 grant 2007-2008 Adnministation for Native Americans grant number 90NL0392/01 2004-2007 Administration for Native Americans grant number 90NL0330 2007-2009 Kenai Kachemak Archaeology Fund, Kenai Peninsula College 2006-2009 Research Funding, Kenai Peninsula College, Gary Turner, Director 2006 University of Alaska Anchorage Chancellor’s Grant Page iv Table of Contents PART I. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 1 PART II. DENA’INA SOUND SYSTEM AND ORTHOGRAPHY..................................... 4 Dena’ina Consonants ...................................................................................... 4 Definitions ................................................................................................. 4 Dena’ina Vowels ............................................................................................ 5 Vowel Lowering .......................................................................................... 5 PART III. WORDS, MORPHEMES, AND SENTENCES.............................................. 6 Morphemes: Free, Bound, and Zero (Ø) ......................................................... 6 Morphology................................................................................................ 7 Roots ........................................................................................................ 7 The Sentence ................................................................................................ 8 Subject ## object ## verb .......................................................................... 8 Variations .................................................................................................. 8 Other components of a sentence:.................................................................. 9 Steps in Reading (translating) Dena’ina ........................................................10 PART IV: NOUNS AND NON-VERB PARTS OF SPEECH .........................................12 Nouns .........................................................................................................12 Possession ...................................................................................................12 Inherent Possession ...................................................................................12 Non-Inherent Possession ............................................................................14 Non-Inherent Possession Indicated by a Proper Noun......................................14 Non-Inherent Possession Indicated by a Possessive Pronoun ............................15 Relative Suffixes and Enclitics, (non-verb) ........................................................17 Postpositions, Independent.............................................................................18 Independent Bound Postpositions.................................................................22 Demonstrative Pronouns ................................................................................37 Conjunctions and Particles..............................................................................38 Adjectives ....................................................................................................39 Adverbs, Independent ...................................................................................40 Adverbs of Time ........................................................................................40 Adverbs of Quantity ...................................................................................43 Adverbs of Location and Direction ................................................................44 Other Adverbs...........................................................................................45 Page v Evidentials and Emphatics ..............................................................................50 Directionals..................................................................................................51 Other Grammatical Elements ..........................................................................52 Plurals, Non-Verb.......................................................................................52 Questions .................................................................................................52 PART V: VERBS.............................................................................................53 Introduction .................................................................................................53 Prefix Zones..............................................................................................53 Interrupted Synthesis.................................................................................54 Inflectional and Derivational Prefixes ............................................................54 General Concepts of the Verb: ........................................................................56 Verb Theme and Roots ...............................................................................56 Theme Class Categories .................................................................................59 Active and Neuter Themes ..........................................................................59 Primary Aspectural String ...........................................................................59 Active Theme Category Examples.................................................................61 Neuter Theme Category Examples................................................................65 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs (Transivity).................................................69 Mode...........................................................................................................70 Imperfect Mode .........................................................................................71 Perfect Mode.............................................................................................73 Future......................................................................................................75 Modal Variations ...........................................................................................77 Optative-Intentional Mode...........................................................................77 Inceptive Mode..........................................................................................79 Neuter Modal Variation ...............................................................................81 Negatives .................................................................................................86