國立中山大學亞太事務英語碩士學位程 碩士論文 International Master Program in Asia-Pacific Affairs National Sun Yat-sen University Master Thesis 中國針對新疆維吾爾族的強迫同化政策 China‟s forced assimilation policy toward the Uyghurs in Xinjiang 研究生：米華 Michal Cieslik 指導教授：林文程 教授 Prof. Lin Wencheng 中華民國 109 年 7 月 July 2020 i 摘要 本研究之目的在探討新疆維吾爾族與中華人民共和國政府之間的衝突起源及現狀並著重於 1949 年人民解放軍發起和平解放後，中華人民共和國政府所實施的種族政策。本研究同 時從中華人民共和國政府以及新疆維吾爾少數民族兩方角度出發，探討這些政策所帶來的 影響並於最後一個章節研究國際對此衝突的回應。本文以文件分析法為主要研究方式，探 討強行同化政策的可行性。然而，根據本文所引述之資料所顯示，其可能性極低。除此之 外，若中華人民共和國政府不改變對維吾爾少數民族的執政方式，維吾爾族將持續激烈的 反抗並可能引發一些暴力衝突。 關鍵詞：維吾爾族，新疆，少數民族政策，中華人民共和國，衝突 ii Abstract This study seeks to explore the origins and the current situation of the ongoing conflict in Xinjiang, China, between the region‟s Uyghur ethnic minority population and the PRC government. Special attention is paid to the Chinese government ethnic policies since the region‟s “peaceful liberation” in 1949 by the PLA. The study also explores the aftermath of these policies from the perspective of the Chinese government and the Xinjiang‟s Uyghur minority. The last section of the study explores the international responses to the conflict. Through utilizing a document analysis as a primary research method, this paper aims to answer whether the forced assimilation policy works. The findings presented in this study strongly suggest that the answer to the above question is no. This paper also suggests that unless China changes its approach to the region‟s Uyghur minority, the strong resistance among the Uyghurs will continue, leading to occasional violent incidents. Key words: Uyghur, Xinjiang, ethnic minority policies, PRC, conflict iii Table of contents Thesis Validation Letter……………………………………………………………………………i 摘要..................................................................................................................................................ii Abstract...........................................................................................................................................iii Table of contents.............................................................................................................................iv Chapter 1 – Introduction..................................................................................................................1 I. Who are the Uyghurs? ........................................................................................................1 II. Motivation............................................................................................................................4 III. Aim and research questions.................................................................................................5 IV. Literature review..................................................................................................................6 V. Theoretical framework.......................................................................................................10 VI. Methodology and study limitations…...............................................................................11 Chapter 2 – History of Xinjiang.....................................................................................................13 I. Ancient times.....................................................................................................................14 II. Islamicisation of Xinjiang..................................................................................................19 III. Qing conquest and incorporation of Xinjiang....................................................................24 IV. Xinjiang under the Republic of China...............................................................................29 Chapter 3 – PRC state and integration of Xinjiang........................................................................32 I. The communist rule begins................................................................................................32 iv II. The „opening up‟ of Xinjiang............................................................................................39 III. The 1990s and the „Strike Hard‟........................................................................................44 IV. Xinjiang in the aftermath of the 9/11.................................................................................53 V. Xinjiang under the leadership of Xi Jinping......................................................................60 Chapter 4 – Uyghur voices and the international response............................................................67 I. Uyghur grievances.............................................................................................................67 II. Uyghur diaspora.................................................................................................................72 III. International perspective....................................................................................................79 Chapter 5 – Conclusion…………..................................................................................................91 Bibliography..................................................................................................................................94 v Chapter 1 – Introduction I. Who are the Uyghurs? China is a huge and diverse country with a population of over 1.4 billion people. About 92% of this 1.4 billion people comprise of the ethnic Han Chinese. Only the remaining 8% are the different ethnic minorities, thus we could say that China is a very homogenous country. However, with such a vast population like China even 8% is a lot of people, in this case about 100 million. Among these 100 million people there are about 10 million Uyghurs who are primarily located in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR) which is located in the northwestern corner of the country and borders countries such as Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Russia and Mongolia. Xinjiang is the biggest administrative region of China and its total land mass accounts for roughly 1.6 million square kilometers. If Xinjiang was a separate country its size would be comparable with Iran, which is currently 17th biggest country in the world. This clearly demonstrates the enormous size of that region. According to the 2010 Chinese government‟s population census, Xinjiang was primarily inhabited by two ethnic groups, Han Chinese and Uyghurs with the total population of around 22 million people. Uyghurs account for 45.84% of the total population, which translates to around 10 million people. The second biggest group was the Han Chinese and they represent 40.48% of the total population, which translates to around 8.8 million people. Right now Uyghurs still represent the majority of people in the region. However with the steady influx of the Han Chinese the situation is slowly changing. The remaining 3.4 million people who represent 13.68% of Xinjiang‟s inhabitants are: Kazakhs, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Manchu, Kyrgyz, Hui, Tatars, Tibetans, Mongols, Russians and other (Asia Dialogue, 2016). - 1 - Uyghurs are an ethnic Turkic group with their distinctive culture and language. They are predominantly Muslims and most of them live in the southern region of Xinjiang with the main center being Kashgar. Northern part of the region is the hub of mainly Han Chinese with Urumqi at the center, which is also the capital of Xinjiang and its biggest city (Millward 2007:30-31). Despite of the fact that Xinjiang is officially a part of China, culturally and ethnically the region‟s majority differ significantly from Han Chinese. Uyghurs have their own culture and language which are more closely related to the cultures and languages of Central Asian republics with Islam at the center. Because of that as well as the historical differences, which will be further discussed in the following chapters, the political situation in Xinjiang is very complicated with the majority of Uyghurs expressing dissatisfaction about their current circumstances. Simply put, many Uyghurs would rather see themselves outside of China, in their own country or at least having the real autonomy not just one on the paper, where they could freely express their true Turkic-Uyghur identity and religious freedom without the state‟s intervention. As a result of that attitude, Xinjiang for over a century has been a witness to nearly a constant struggle for independence and freedom, where the different interests of Uyghurs and Hans would often collide. Since the 1980s when the conflict has been increasingly ravaging the region, the situation has evolved into something that has a potential of being a destabilizing force for the communist rule (Holdstock 2015:3-4). As a response, since 1996 the Chinese government launched a punitive campaign against the so called “three evils” – terrorism, separatism and extremism (Millward 2007:341). This campaign includes security surveillance, home raids, imprisonment or forced participation in the so called “reeducation camps” of people suspected of the above mentioned activities. The government puts the blame on Islamic insurgents, who happen to be mainly Uyghurs and who, - 2 - according to the Chinese government, want to establish an independent state called East Turkestan in the province of Xinjiang (BBC 2014). Until July 2009, which was the time that had seen the most violent riots to date in China, in the city of Urumqi, where the bloody clashes between Uyghurs and Han Chinese resulted in nearly 200 people dead, many foreign media