The International Political Economy of Transnational Climate Governance in Latin America. Urban Policies related to Low Carbon Emissions Public Transportation in Lima - Peru and Mexico City - Mexico José Manuel Leal García A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctorate in Philosophy degree in Political Science School of Political Studies Faculty of Social Science University of Ottawa © José Manuel Leal García, Ottawa, Canada, 2020 Table of Contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………….vii List of Figures and Tables…………………………………………………………………………..x Acronyms and Abbreviations……………………………………………………………………….xi Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………….xv Introduction……………………………………………………………………………........xviii Chapter 1 Literature Review: How does the city networks literature conceptualize intermediary actors’ interaction within networks?....................................................................................................................................1 1.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………….1 1.1 What does the literature say about new institutional arrangements in transnational climate change governance?.......................................................................................................................2 1.2 Innovation and complexity of climate governance……………………………………………..10 1.3 Latin American cities and transnational networks in the literature, what have we learned about cities and transnational governance in Latin America?.....................................................16 1.4 What does the literature says about public transportation policies in Latin America?.......................................................................................................................................21 1.5 Limitations from traditional approaches to the study of transnational networks and urban climate politics…………………………………………………………………………………………….22 1.6 Liberal institutionalism……………………………………………………………………………23 1.6.1 Limitations when studying cities’ network activities through complex interdependence (a branch of liberal institutionalism)…………………..….24 ii 1.7 What are the knowledge gaps in the literature of transnational networks and cities in Latin America?......................................................................................................................................25 1.8 New hybrid institutional arrangements…………………………………………………………26 1.9 Geographical bias in the study of TCCG in the global South………………………………..27 1.10 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………………………30 Chapter 2 A Theoretical Approach to Transnational Climate Governance in Latin America………………………………………………………...32 2.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………..32 2.1 A Marxist and neo-Gramscian approach to the study of TCCG in Latin America…………35 2.2 Hegemony…………………………………………………………………………………...39 2.2.1 Structural power as an element of hegemony formation…………………………….………45 2.2.2 Three elements for the construction of hegemony (passive revolution, caesarism, transformismo)…………………………………………………………………………… …….47 2.2.3 Consent………………………………………………………………………………… 50 2.3 Historic bloc………………………………………………………………………………..52 2.4 Transnational Capitalist Class…………………………………………………………………….56 2.4.1 Elements of TCC formation…………..…………………………………………………58 2.4.2 The role of the financial sector in TCC formation………………………………..…………60 2.5 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….61 Chapter 3 Mixed methodologies for the study of Transnational Climate Change Governance in Latin America. Studying Latin America’s climate politics differently……………………………………………..63 3.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………63 3.1 Why promote the use of qualitative methods over quantitative methods for this study?..........66 3.1.1 Interpretative approach………………………………………………………………….……..67 iii 3.1.2 Relation between the methodological choice and the theoretical framework adopted….68 3.2 Research questions………………………………………………………………………………………69 3.3 Data collection………………………………………………………………………………………… ..71 3.4 Fieldwork………………………………………………………………………………………………….72 3.5 Case Study Methodology………………………………………………………………………………..76 3.6 Case study selection criteria……………………………………………………………………………78 3.7 Semi-structured Interviews………………………………………………………………………...……80 3.8 Documents and legislation related to climate politics…………………………………….………...84 3.9 Data analysis…………………………………………………………………………………………......86 3.10 Coding criteria (process)………………………………………………………………………..……..87 3.11 Social-Network Analysis………………………………………………………………………………..91 3.12 Limitations of the methodological choices………………………………………………….………..94 3.13 Methodological contributions to the study of cities and transnational climate change relations………………………………………………………………………………………………......95 Chapter 4 Lima’s climate change politics………………………………………..94 4.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………….....94 4.1 Peru’s Climate Politics………………………………………………………………………………...101 4.1.1 National legislation and institutional mechanisms………………………………………….102 4.1.2 Peru’s relation with IOs and cooperation agencies…………………………………..........104 4.2 Civil societies’ participation in the Peruvian Climate Governance……………………….….…110 4.2.1 The participation of NGOs, INGOs, and philanthropic organizations………………......111 4.3 Consulting companies……………………………………………………………………………….…116 4.4 Universities……………………………………………………………………………….…..118 4.5 Lima’s network activity…………………………………………………………………………….….120 4.5.1 Regional networks………………………………………….……………………….….120 4.5.2 Relations with C40…………………………………………………………..…………125 4.6 Transnational actors participating in Lima’s climate politics……………………………………134 4.7 Lima and its relations with the Transnational Capitalist Class (TCC)………………………….139 4.8 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………………...142 iv Chapter 5 Mexico’s City’s climate change politics…………...……………..144 5.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………....144 5.1 Mexico’s climate politics at a national level…………………………………………………….….145 5.2 Mexico City’s climate politics………………………………………………………………………...148 5.2.1 Local legislation, programs and institutional mechanisms………………………………..149 5.3 Civil society’s participation…………………………………………………………………………..152 5.3.1 Local and international non-governmental organizations………………………………...153 5.3.2 Universities………………………………………………………………………………………159 5.3.3 Consulting private companies………………………………………………………………...160 5.4 Network activity………………………………………………………………………………………..161 5.4.1 Relationship with C40………………………………..………………………………………..164 5.4.2 The Mexico City Pact…………………………………………………………………………..167 5.5 Mexico City transnational relations on climate change………………………………………….175 5.6 Mexico City and its relation with the Transnational Capitalist Class (TCC)………………….180 5.7 Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………………………..182 Chapter 6 Urban policies related to Low-Carbon Emissions Public Transportation in two Latin American cities…………………………………185 6.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………185 6.1 The public transportation sector in Latin America……………………………………………...…187 6.2 The Public Transportation System in Lima………………………………………………………….188 6.2.1 Origins of the chaos……………………………………………………………………..………190 6.2.2 The Metro system in Lima……………………………………………………………..……….191 6.2.3 The construction of the Bus Rapid Transit system in Lima………………………...………192 6.2.4 An issue of climate justice…………………………………………………………….……..…195 6.2.5 The “Great Reform on Public Transportation.” A climate justice approach……….…..196 6.3 A clash of approaches in Lima’s public transportation system………………………….…….…199 6.4 The public transportation system in Mexico City………………………………………….……….201 v 6.4.1 Transnational actors in Mexico City’s Public Transportation Sector……………………202 6.4.2 The participation of the ITDP in the development of a BRT system in Mexico City……205 6.4.3 The influence of the WRI in the construction of the BRT system……………………….…206 6.4.4 The role of C40 in the installation of Mexico City’s BRT system………………………...211 6.5 Lima’s transnational connections regarding LCEPT………………………………………...…...213 6.6 Mexico City’s transnational connections on LCEPT…………………………………..……..……215 6.7 Comparing the two cities……………………………………………………………………….………217 6.8 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………………...220 Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………..........224 References…………………………………………………………………………………………239 Annexes……………………………………………………………………………………………282 vi Abstract The thesis aims to uncover and challenge the prevailing assumptions related to transnational networks in the field of climate change (TNCCs). TNCCs are often seen as promoters of a more horizontal model for global climate governance. Throughout the chapters, the thesis challenges this common conception. Focusing on the relation between the C40 cities network and two Latin American cities, Lima and Mexico City, I argue that transnational networks are actors facilitating access to cities by transnational companies instead of solely promoting the sharing of experiences and the support for a more inclusive global climate governance model. Put differently, based on the empirical evidence, the thesis claims that transnational climate networks work as an instrument for the transnational capitalist class (TCC, see Carroll, 2010) promoting market-based solutions and economic hegemony in climate politics. Empirically, the thesis shows how the C40 operates as a facilitator to transnational corporate investment in a range of infrastructures in cities from the global South. In particular, the study focuses on the intervention in