People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria Ministry of Higher Education and Scentific Research Djillali Liabes University of Sidi Bel Abbes Faculty of Letters, Languages and Arts Department of English Language Planning and Endangered Minority Languages Schools as Agents for Language Revival in Algeria and Australia Thesis Submitted to the Department of English in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctorate in Language Planning and Education Submitted by: Supervised by: Mr. Terriche Abdallah Amin Prof. Melouk Mohamed Board of Examiners Prof. Bedjaoui Fewzia President Sidi Bel Abbes University Prof. Melouk Mohamed Supervisor Sidi Bel Abbes University Prof. Ouerrad Belabbas Examiner Sidi Bel Abbes University Dr. Bensafa Abdelakader Examiner Tlemcen University Dr. Baraka Abdellah Examiner Mascara University Dr. Gambaza Hichem Examiner Saida University 2019-2020 Dedication To all my teachers and teacher educators I Acknowledgements The accomplishment of the present study is due to the assistance of several individuals. I would like to take this opportunity to express immense gratitude to all of them. In particular, I am profoundly indebted to my supervisor, Prof. Melouk Mohamed, who has been very generous with his time, knowledge and assisted me in each step to complete the dissertation. I also owe a debt of gratitude to all members of the jury for their extensive advice and general support: Prof. Bedjaoui Fewzia as president, Prof. Ouerrad Belabbas, Dr. Bensafa Abdelakaer, Dr. Baraka Abdellah, and Dr. Gambaza Hichem as examiners. I gratefully acknowledge the very generous support of Mr Zaitouni Ali, Mr Hamza Mohamed, Dr Robert Amery, and Mr Greg Wilson who were instrumental in producing this work, in particular data collection. The latter not only got involved in the research as guides, but also participated in the study by distributing and filling in the questionnaires. My sincerest thanks are due to all the Tuareg informants who dedicated some of their time to fill in the questionnaire and were always ready to cooperate with me in the difficult task of preparing this work. II Abstract Tamahaq and Arabana, similar to so many endangered languages around the globe, run high risk of endangerment. If great efforts are not made now, these heritage languages could become extinct losing with them the knowledge and culture they carry. This research describes curriculum development and design for Arabana in Australia and Tamahaq in Algeria. The focal point of investigation is curriculum development process for the aforementioned endangered languages. That is to say, the major purpose is to uncover the similarities and differences between Algeria and Australia in so far as the teaching of endangered languages is concerned. By implication, a major goal is to improve the practice of curriculum design for Tamahaq by implementing the lessons learned from the Australian context. The current research employs a cross-nation comparative case study. In choosing which cases to study, Przeworski and Teune‘s the most different systems strategy is employed. Key fundamental lessons are learned from the Australian experience, yet it is acknowledged the same process cannot be replicated as a whole. First, the endangered language community ought to be consulted as long as they are regarded as custodian, need to be involved, and their expectations should be also canvassed, respected and adhered to. The ultimate authority regarding choice of target language, mainly within Tamahaq dialectal continuum context, rests with the custodians. Rather than customary top-down decision making, consultation with the different stakeholders with maximum participation from the speech community should be prioritized. Equally important, sufficient time for consultation process should be allotted to better understand the local situation, that is, circumstances of language shift. Furthermore, recommendations picked up from the indigenous community ought to be taken onboard. Last but not least, a program reference committee, having all the required dexterity, ought to include members able to contribute to curriculum design. Key words: Language Revitalization, Endangered Language, Tamahaq, Arabana, Curriculum Design. III List of Abbreviations and Acronyms (ABS) Australian Bureau of Statistics (ACARA) Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (BCM) Berber Cultural Movement (AGTV) Association of German Teachers of Victoria (AILASA) Association of Iberian and Latin American Studies in Australia (HBC) High Berber Commissariat (HCA) Haut Commissariat à l‘Amazighité (LOTE) Language Other Than English (MSA) Modern Standard Arabic (MTLD) The Movement for the Triumph of Liberty and Democracy (NATO) North Atlantic Treaty Organization (PAP) Party of the Algerian People (RLS) Reversing Language Shift (SAGTA) South Australian German Teachers Association (SERBISH) Shuar Bicultural Radio Education System (SFF) Socialist Forces Front (SLASA) Spanish and Latin American Association for Social Assistance (SSABSA) The Senior Secondary Assessment Board of South Australia (TPR) Total Physical Response (UNESCO) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization IV List of Tables Table (1.1). Contexts of Use of High and Low Varieties in Diaglossic Situations. ……………… 15 Table (1.2). Phonological Differences between Berber Varieties. ………………………………... 22 Table (1.3). Arabic Influence on Berber Languages in Algeria. …………………………………. 25 Table (1.4). Arabic Loanwords Borrowed to Tamazight. ………………………………………… 26 Table (1.5). French Loanwords Borrowed to Tamazight. ………………………………………… 27 Table (1.6). Common Indicators of an Endangered Language. …………………………………... 32 Table (1.7). Krauss Scale of Language Vitality. ………………………………………………….. 34 Table (1.8). Tamahaq Varieties and Areas where Spoken. ………………………………………. 43 Table (1.9). Tamahaq Varieties and Areas where Spoken. ………………………………………. 43 Table (1.10). Lexical Differences between Tamahaq Varieties. ………………………………….. 45 Table (1.11). Lexical Differences between Tamahaq Varieties. ………………………………….. 45 Table (1.12). Lexical Differences between Tamahaq Varieties. …………………………………. 46 Table (1.13): Matthias Brenzinger‘s Account of Endangered Languages in Algeria. …………… 50 Table (1.14): Number of Tamazight Students by Province and Year. ……………………………. 63 Table (1.15). Evolutionary stages for Australian and New Zealand English. …………………….. 88 Table (2.1). Major Differences between Language Maintenance and Language revitalization Processes. ………………………………………………………………………………………… 132 Table (2.2). Basic Format of a Language Documentation Project. ……………………………… 145 Table (3.1). List of Prospective Informants. ……………………………………………………. 175 Table (3.2). List of Prospective Informants Recommended by Dr. Robert Amery. ……………. 177 Table (3.3). List of Contacts Requested to Take part in the Research. ………………………..... 188 Table (4.1). Arabana Curriculum Writers and Reviewers. ………………………………………. 215 Table (4.2) : Arabana Curriculum Modules. ……………………………………………………. 217 V List of Figures Figure (1.1). Language Shift Pattern. …………………………………………………………… 29 Figure (1.2). Population Decline and Growth 1788-2001. ……………………………………… 82 Figure (1.3). Origin Theories about Aboriginal English. ……………………………………….. 85 Figure (1.4). Pama-Nyungan Family of Langauges. ……………………………………………. 106 Figure (1.5). Arabana Phoneme Inventory. …………………………………………………….. 107 Figure (1.6). Arabana Word Class. ………………………………………………………………. 107 Figure (3.1). Curriculum Design Framework. …………………………………………………… 166 Figure (4.1). Learning Arabana CD-ROM Navigation Interface. ……………………………….. 218 Figure (4.2). Vocabulary Flashcard. ……………………………………………………………. 219 Figure (4.3). Vocabulary Flashcard (Imperative Verbs). ………………………………………... 219 Figure (4.4). Tamahaq Vitality Assessment. …………………………………………………….. 223 Figure (4.5). Tamahaq Domains of Language Use Assessment. ………………………………. 224 Figure (4.6). Tamahaq Language Variation Assessment. ……………………………………….. 225 Figure (4.7). Tuareg Language Commitment and Attitude Assessment. ……………………… 226 Figure (4.8). Tuareg Attitude Assessment towards Language Revitalization. ……………………227 Figure (4.9). Linguists Availability for Tamahaq Course Design. ………………………………. 228 Figure (4.10). Curriculum Designers Availability for Tamahaq Course Design. ………………. 229 Figure (4.11). Tamahaq Codification Activities. ………………………………………………… 230 Figure (4.12). Tamahaq Graphization Selection. ……………………………………………… 231 Figure (4.13). Tamahaq Grammar Standardization Activity. ……………………………………. 232 Figure (4.14). Tamahaq Lexication Design. …………………………………………………… 233 Figure (4.15). Needs Analysis for Tamahaq Curriculum Design. ………………………………. 235 Figure (4.16). Guiding Principle Applied for Tamahaq Syllaby Design. ……………………… 240 Figure (4.17). Cultural Elements Integration within Tamahaq Syllabus. ……………………….. 241 Figure (4.18). Outdoor Activities in Tamahaq Syllabus. ……………………………………… 242 Figure (5.1). Arabana-Tamahaq Cross Site Analysis of Language Policy Implementation. ……. 252 Figure (5.2). Consultation Stakeholders Arabana-Tamahaq Cross Site Analysis. ………………. 256 VI Figure (5.3). Curriculum Design Criteria Cross Site Analysis. ………………………………… 259 Figure (5.4). Curriculum Development Stages Cross Site Analysis. ……………………………. 262 Figure (5.5). Program Types Cross Site Analysis. ………………………………………………. 265 Figure (5.6). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Framework Content. ……………………… 267 Figure (5.7). Curriculum Rationale and Aims Cross Site Analysis. ……………………………… 269 Figure (5.8). Syllabus Content Cross Site Analysis. ……………………………………………… 272 Figure (5.9). Curriculum