The Language Youth A sociolinguistic and ethnographic study of contemporary Norwegian Nynorsk language activism (2015-16, 2018) A research dissertation submitteed in fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Master of Science by Research in Scandinavian Studies Track II 2018 James K. Puchowski, MA (Hons.) B0518842 Oilthigh Varsity o University of Dhùn Èideann Edinburgh Edinburgh Sgoil nan Schuil o School of Litreachasan, Leeteraturs, Literatures, Cànanan agus Leids an Languages and Culturan Culturs Cultures 1 This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank 2 Declaration Declaration I confirm that this dissertation presented for the degree of Master of Science by Research in Scandinavian Studies (II) has been composed entirely by myself. Except where it is stated otherwise by reference or acknowledgement, it has been solely the result of my own fieldwork and research, and it has not been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification. For the purposes of examination, the set word-limit for this dissertation is 30 000. I confirm that the content given in Chapters 1 to 7 does not exceed this restriction. Appendices – which remain outwith the word-limit – are provided alongside the bibliography. As this work is my own, I accept full responsibility for errors or factual inaccuracies. James Konrad Puchowski 3 Abstract Abstract Nynorsk is one of two codified orthographies of the Norwegian language (along with Bokmål) used by around 15% of the Norwegian population. Originating out of a linguistic project by Ivar Aasen following Norway’s separation from Denmark and ratification of a Norwegian Constitution in 1814, the history of Nynorsk in civil society has been marked by its association with "language activist" organisations which have to-date been examined from historiographical perspectives (Bucken-Knapp 2003, Puzey 2011). This study, in contrast, observes this movement synchronically by describing the activities of young Nynorsk activists in the Norwegian Language Youth (NMU, Norsk Målungdom) using ethnographic methods between 2015-16 and again in January 2018. By observing first- hand, and reviewing events and discourses in their socio-political context – examining the behaviour of activists in NMU in reference to their interactions with the media and the public – this project creates an analytical "thick description" (McCarty 2015) of present-day Nynorsk language activism. This project critically reviews current-day definitions of language activism, arguing that more nuanced and less essentialised definitions would benefit how linguists account for how such activities vary across different locales, communities and social contexts. In response to calls to diverge away from nation-state, policy-specific top-down perspectives in language policy and management (Linn 2010), the project evaluates linguistic behaviour bottom-up, following the research aims of a "socially constituted" linguistics (Bell 2016); language users are studied in order to account for how linguistic discourse and the development of language attitudes/ideologies act as vital actors in sociolinguistic variation and change. Keywords: Nynorsk, Norsk Målungdom (Norwegian Language Youth), linguistic ethnography, language activism, critical sociolinguistics 4 Lay Summary Lay Summary The Norwegian language has two officially recognised written forms – Nynorsk and Bokmål. Nynorsk is used by the minority of people in Norway (around 15% of the population), whereas Bokmål is used by the rest as the dominant written language in Norway’s cities and urban areas. This linguistic situation arose from much political and social interest in identity and language after Norway’s separation from Denmark when Norwegians ratified their own Constitution in 1814. Opposed to continuing to use Danish, or a Norwegianised form of Danish, as the written standard for the Norwegian language, Ivar Aasen (1813-1896) travelled and researched the history of both the Norwegian language and its dialects to design Nynorsk (literally New Norwegian). This form would later develop, gain some support, and become popular in the west and midland regions of Norway – as well as be used also by people in all walks of society. In today’s Norway, several "language activist" organisations associated with Nynorsk exist, which linguists have detailed and examined before at particular points in time such as the early and late 20th century (Bucken-Knapp 2003, Puzey 2011). In this project, however, I have observed modern-day advocates of Nynorsk in the Norwegian Language Youth (NMU, Norsk Målungdom) using ethnographic methods. Ethnography uses observation and fieldwork techniques to broadly describe and assess social behaviour in different societies and cultures (McCarty 2015). I performed this fieldwork between 2015- 16 and again in January 2018. In particular, I have witnessed the behaviour and activities of NMU in reference to their interactions with the media and the public. The reason for doing this fieldwork and analysing Nynorsk language activism is to critically review what current-day linguists and scholars mean when they talk about language activism. I argue and I demonstrate in this project that broader definitions make sure we can talk about different types of this activity. I show that it is also important to look at how people talk about language and see how they are involved in popular debates about language, instead of only looking at what governments and authorities do (Linn 2010). By observing such behaviour from this perspective, my project is a type of "socially constituted" linguistics (Bell 2016) where I account for how the attitudes we have towards different linguistic behaviours contribute to variation and change in language. 5 Nota bene Nota bene The fonts used in this document are Linux Libertine G (front page), Liberation Sans and Liberation Serif. The primary language of this work is English. Where quotations, excerpts and citations are given in Norwegian (or other languages) in the main text body, translations by the author are provided. Some organisation names are abbreviated to these acronyms which are used throughout: Noregs Mållag / Norwegian Language Society = NM Norsk Målungdom / Norwegian Language Youth = NMU Studentmållaget i Oslo / Student Language Association of Oslo = SmiO If you are citing a digital copy of this document, please use the following details: Forename: James Konrad Surname: Puchowski Year: 2018 Institution: University of Edinburgh Qualification: Master of Science by Research in Scandinavian Studies, Track II Title: The Language Youth: A Sociolinguistic and Ethnographic Study of Contemporary Norwegian Nynorsk Language Activism (2015-16, 2018) Puchowski, J. (2018). The Language Youth: A Sociolinguistic and Ethnographic Study of Contemporary Nynorsk Language Activism (2015-16, 2018). University of Edinburgh. MScR dissertation 6 Acknowledgements & Contents Acknowledgements & Contents [Ethnography is] a wonderful excuse for having an adventurous good time while operating under the pretext of doing serious intellectual work. van Maanen 1995: 2 For Mum, Dad, and Georgie This research would not have been able to be submitted without the generous support received from the School of Literatures, Languages and Cultures at the University of Edinburgh through the Arthur Kitchin Postgraduate Scholarship and the Helen Philip Memorial Bursary. Following a relatively successful undergraduate career at Edinburgh there had nevertheless always been a genuine and legitimate concern that I would not be able to fund any of my postgraduate studies – however, the encouragement and endorsement these awards have provided has been indispensable, and I am eternally indebted to university teaching and research staff who have helped me get this far. I am also grateful for the support of these institutions to secure funding for my PhD in Linguistics and English Language (commencing September 2018 at the University of Edinburgh) from the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland. A good portion of the funds awarded this year have been used to pay for attendance at international conferences, and I would like to thank staff, undergraduate students and postgraduate researchers at the University of Copenhagen and the University of California, Berkeley for their feedback and constructive comments on my work and research interests. Travelling and meeting new associates and research colleagues is probably the most enjoyable part of my life as an early career researcher, and I look forward to visiting these campuses again as I continue. A great deal of thanks is also due to the support I have received from fellow students and researchers at the University of Edinburgh – over the past five years of being at this institution, it has been a pleasure to be in the company of and see the research of fellow Scandinavianists Ian Giles, Christian Cooijmans, Anja Tröger and Ruairidh Tarvet, Celticists and historians Christopher Lewin, Duncan Sneddon and Adam Dahmer, and linguists Katerina Pantoula, James Reid and Johannes Woschitz. 7 Acknowledgements & Contents I am so grateful for the constant support, advice and endorsements I have received from my supervisors Dr. Guy Puzey and Professor John E. Joseph; it is a privilege to have these two people monitor my progress, and I hope that this cooperation continues as swimmingly as it has done so far. I also would like to thank Professor Bernadette O’Rourke for her kind advice and support as I venture down the tangent