The Eagle’s Webbed Feet The Eagle’s Webbed Feet •A Maritime History of the United States A Maritime History of the United States A Maritime History of the Uniteds The Second World War “Scratch one flattop!” “Damn it Captain, they’re getting away!” Pearl Harbor • China is the real bone of contention between the US and Japan • May 1941, Roosevelt orders the fleet to remain in Pearl Harbor • July 1941 – Oil imports to Japan halted • Japanese decision to go southeast for resources • The Soviet-Japanese Border Wars (1932-1939) o Battles of Khalkhin Gol (Nomonhan) (May-Sept 1939) o Neutrality Pact (April 1941) • The Philippines is the real target of the Pearl Harbor attack • Mahan’s influence on the IJN. “If you attack us, we will break your empire; before we are through with you …. we will crush you.” Admiral Stark (CNO) to Ambassador Nomura (Nov 1941) • What were the Japanese thinking? (Compromise Peace) Pearl Harbor (2) • Destroyed or severely damaged 8 battleships, 10 cruisers/destroyers, 230 aircraft, & killed 2400 men. Cost was 29 planes, 5 midget subs. • A “short war” meant they could ignore fuel depots, repair facilities and the submarine base. • Their air superiority meant they could ignore the US carriers • War declared on Japan the next day • On December 11th Germany declared war on the US (???) • One of the two stupidest decisions of World War Two USS Arizona USS Shaw War in the Atlantic • The US Navy’s role in the Atlantic War was: • The U-Boat War (Priority #1) • Safely convoying troops, equipment, and supplies • Destroy the U-Boat fleet • Conduct amphibious operations of Army forces • Because of Pearl Harbor, the Navy reluctantly supported the “Germany First” policy envisioned in Rainbow Five but it did not really believe in it. • Resource contest between the Atlantic & Pacific • Who won? The U-Boat War • Jan 42 to Aug 42 – 2d “Glückliche Zeit” • US enters the war • Operation Drumroll • “Shark” introduced • 500 ktons / month (GOAL!!) • By Sept. driven back into the “air gap” The Air Gap The U-Boat War(2) • Aug 42 to Apr 43 – Slugging it out . Continue at 500 ktons / month . U-boat losses continue to be low (3 / month) . Donitz gets more boats (200+) . Allies make defeating the U-boat the primary war aim. (Casablanca) • Late spring / early summer 1943 • The battle ends in complete U-boat defeat • ALLIED TECHNOLOGY • Why??? • ALLIED TACTICS • B-DEINST GOES BLIND PBY4 Hedgehogs Long-Range ASW Aircraft Huff Duff Cavity Magnetron Jeep Carriers Allied ships and U-Boat Losses 300 250 200 Allied Ships (X10) 150 U-Boats 100 Hull Losses 50 0 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 Year The U-Boat War(3) • Last 4 months of 1943: 9 ships vs. 62 U-boats • The campaign failed (never even close) • 500 kton/month goal did not adequately consider shipbuilding or cargos verses hulls. • Shipbuilding (5800 built vs. 3500 lost) • Technology • Tactics & training • However 80000 US/British seaman killed (23/ship) • Germans lost 700 boats and 30000 sailors (43/boat) • Highest loss rate of any service in the war (75%) Amphibious Warfare in the Atlantic • 6 major campaigns: • North Africa (Torch) – November 1942 USS Frankford • Sicily (Husky) – July 1943 • Italy (Avalanche) – September 1943 • Anzio (Shingle) – January 1944 • Normandy (Neptune) – June 1944 • 6939 vessels (well over half were British) Invading the French Riviera • British planned assault • US destroyers at Omaha • Day 1 – 160,000 men landed (from 12 nations) • By 30 June, 850K men, 160K vehicles, and 600K tons of supplies landed • Southern France (Dragoon) – August 1944 • Army troops only (Marines reserved for the Pacific) • However, all six used Marine Corps Amphibious doctrine War in the Pacific • Naval assignments: • Guerre de Course – (Unrestricted submarine campaign against Japan) • Fleet Actions (5 major sea battles + the Solomons campaign) • Amphibious Operations (78 landings) • Organization after Pearl Harbor • A compromise • MacArthur – Southwest Pacific • Nimitz – Central Pacific • Halsey – South Pacific initially and then MacArthur’s Naval Commander • In Washington • King as CNO and Leahy as Chief of Staff to the CINC King Nimitz Leahy MacArthur Halsey Japan Runs Wild • As Yamamoto predicted in the next six months Japan: • Conquered Thailand, Hong Kong, Guam, Wake Island, Burma, Dutch East Indies, Bali, Timor, Rabaul, Malay, Singapore, Java, Sumatra and the Philippines. • Sank the Repulse and the Prince of Wales (10 December ‘41) • Destroyed the ABDA naval forces at the Battle of Java Sea (March ‘42) • Bombed Darwin and other Australian targets (≈ 100 attacks) • Drove the Royal Navy out of the Western Indian Ocean • Invaded the Solomon Islands & New Guinea • By May 1942, Japan had become a victim of “Victory Disease”. • She now ignored her own strategic plan. • Allies start to push back. Japan Runs Wild (Dec 41 – March 42 Japan Run Wild US Submarine Campaign • Got off to a terrible start • Torpedoes didn’t work • Major doctrine to strategy mismatch ART. 22 LONDON NAVAL CONF: “A submarine may not sink or render incapable of navigation a merchant vessel without first having placed passengers, crew, and ships papers in a place of safety.” • This does not fit with: “conduct unrestricted submarine warfare against the Japanese Empire.” 1942 and 1943 • Got rid of most CO’s • Developed complementary doctrine, strategy & tactics • Introduced (American) wolf packs • Fixed the torpedoes (finally) • Slowly but steadily got better • By late 1943, the force was ready. (Adm Lockwood) 1944 • Japan was completely unprepared for this onslaught • Manning policy • Japanese submarine performance • US submarine performance • Racism • Results: • Airtight blockade • Japan’s merchant fleet destroyed • 1/3 of their navy sunk • Complete interruption of the Japanese ability to wage war. Japanese Losses To Submarines 1941 - 1945 700 1944 600 500 400 1943 1945 Tonage losses 300 (Ktons) 1942 200 100 0 Japanese Economic Collapse INPORTS 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Iron 5058 4880 3686 1668 143 (Ktons) Coal 9585 8748 6029 3135 188 (Ktons) Oil 8 11 14 5 0 (Mbls) Food supplies in 1945 were 32% of 1939 levels. Fleet Actions • Five major sea battles were fought with the IJN after Pearl Harbor. • Coral Sea • Midway • Philippine Sea • Leyte Gulf • Okinawa • The Solomon Islands Campaign: • Eleven naval battles • Eight amphibious landings • Almost daily air battles. • In aggregate, these battles transitioned from Japanese tactical superiority (especially in night fighting) to an overwhelming tactical and material advantage for the USN. Fleet Actions (2) • Coral Sea (1st aircraft only battle in history) (May ‘42) • Strategic US Victory (Halted the Port Moresby invasion) • Loss of the Lexington for one small Japanese carrier (+ 2 damaged!) • Aircraft losses: Japanese – 92, US – 65. • Last battle where the US went after the IJN. • Midway (June ‘42) • Doolittle Raid (April ‘42) • Code breaking • 3 US carriers (2?) vs. 4 Japanese carriers (6?) • Plan: destroy US carriers and any remaining major fleet units • Losses: Japanese – 4 carriers, 248 aircraft, 3000 men US – 1 carrier, 150 aircraft, 307 men • These two battles reduced Japan’s ability to undertake further offensive actions and paved the way for the Solomon’s campaign Fleet actions 1. Coral Sea 2. Midway 3. Solomons 6 2 4. Philippine Sea 5. Leyte Gulf 5 4 6. Okinawa 3 1 The Solomon’s Campaign • Japanese airfield on Guadalcanal • US Marines lands in August 1942 and initiated a major combined arms campaign (Operation Watchtower) • Japan attempts to keep Guadalcanal supplied • 11 Naval battles (3 carrier battles and 8 surface actions) • Battle of the E. Solomons (lost 75 aircraft vs. 20 US plus one CVL) (Aug ‘42) • Battle of Santa Cruz (lost 91 aircrew vs. 81 US + USS Hornet) (Oct ‘42) • Naval Battle of Guadalcanal (Ended any hope of a Japanese victory) (Nov ‘42) • Japan loses 2 Battleships, 1 Heavy cruiser, 3 Destroyers, 11 combat transports, 64 aircraft and 5000 soldiers drown "This battle was a tactical win, but a shattering strategic loss for Japan. Considering the great superiority of our enemy's industrial capacity, we must win every battle overwhelmingly in order to win this war. This last one, although a victory, unfortunately, was not an overwhelming victory.“ Admiral Nugumo USS Enterprise takes a bomb hit during the Battle of Eastern Solomons. This will be the 2d of the three times she is “sunk”. The Solomon’s Campaign (2) • Technically this campaign lasted until Nov ‘43 but fighting continued until the end of the war. • Launched Operation Cartwheel (Offensive operations in the Pacific) • Loses: • Japanese- 80,000 men, 50+ ships sunk, 1500 aircraft • US – 10,600 men, 40 ships sunk, 800 aircraft • Over ½ of the aviators who attacked Pearl Harbor were now dead • This was attrition warfare; something the Japanese could not possibly win. How the tide turned during the campaign Battle of Salvo Island (August 1942) Strength 5CA, 2 CL, 1 DD 6 CA, 2 CL, 15 DD Losses None 3 CA, 1 CA + 2 DD Heavy Damage Battle of Empress Augusta Bay (November 1943) Strength 2 CA, 2 CL, 6 DD 4 CL, 8 DD Losses 1 CL, 1 DD, None 1 CL + 1 DD Heavy Damage Philippine Sea • Great Mariana’s Turkey Shoot (June ‘44) • Last major carrier vs. carrier battle of the war • Since the Solomon’s, the IJN was reconstituting it’s air groups and then planned to look again for a decisive battle. • Completely failed to recognize the speed with which the USN had been able to build up it’s forces both in quantity and quality of material and in training • 15 (7 fleet) carriers vs. 9 (5 fleet) carriers, 956 aircraft vs. 750 (300 of them land-based) • Plan A-Go (Destruction of the US fleet invading the Marianas Islands.) • Loses: Japanese – 3 fleet carriers sunk & 600+ aircraft lost US – 123 aircraft lost • Japanese naval air power was finished.