PATHWAYS TO PRINCIPALSHIP: WOMEN LEADERS OF CO-EDUCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOLS IN SOUTH AFRICA - A LIFE HISTORY STUDY Caroline Jane Faulkner A thesis submitted to the Wits School of Education, Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Johannesburg February 2015 Copyright Notice © The copyright of this thesis vests in the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, in accordance with the University’s Intellectual Property Policy. No portion of the text may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including analogue and digital media, without prior written permission from the University. Extracts of or quotations from this thesis may, however, be made in terms of Sections 12 and 13 of the South African Copyright Act No. 98 of 1978 (as amended), for non-commercial or educational purposes. Full acknowledgement must be made to the author and the University. An electronic version of this thesis is available on the Library webpage (www.wits.ac.za/library) under “Research Resources”. For permission requests, please contact the University Legal Office or the University Research Office (www.wits.ac.za). ii ABSTRACT This thesis presents a qualitative, longitudinal study conducted in South Africa which, through the use of narrative enquiry and life history methodology, examined and explored the personal and professional pathways to co-educational high school principalship of four South African women. This is a role that, in gender terms, remains a minority position in South Africa, and internationally. The study sought to understand why women would want to become principals of co-educational high schools, particularly in a deeply traditional and patriarchal society such as South Africa: it also considered what barriers and enablers, both ‘external’ and ‘internal’, might have impacted upon their progress to principalship Life history is the preferred methodology in feminist research, where the voices and perspectives of women are foregrounded, and this study is firmly rooted in feminist theory and practice. The four women participants in this respondent-led study were from different mother tongue language groups and ethnic backgrounds, and were purposively selected on the basis of the interesting and varied stories which I thought they had to tell, given my brief knowledge of them from the professional courses they had attended with me in the past. The data collection involved the gathering of the personal narratives and stories that unfolded from my interaction with the participants. The research instruments, of both a semi-structured and unstructured nature, were designed to promote and encourage, not lead, our “conversations with a purpose” (Ribbins 2007). This narrative enquiry process enabled a full exploration of the personal and professional pathways of the four women from which, their life histories were developed, the data analysed, grounded theory emerged, and my conclusions were drawn. iii The study revealed that the women’s personal agency was a strong enabler to their progress: as a result, they were not constrained by societally imposed stereotypes and prevailing discriminatory attitudes. This manifestation of their personal agency was also clearly interwoven with their deep spiritual faith. The study shows that it was the combination of these powerful forces and beliefs, personal agency and a deeply held belief that they were doing ‘God’s work’, which enabled the four women to achieve principalship. KEYWORDS: Co-educational High Schools, Feminism, Life History, Patriarchy. Principalship, Women Leaders, iv DECLARATION I declare that this thesis is my own unaided work. It is being submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. It has not been submitted before for any other degree or examination at any other university Signed Caroline Jane Faulkner Date: … day of February in the year 2015 v DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my mother, Olive (1921 – 2011), a truly kind, generous, inspirational woman and teacher whose daughter I am fortunate, and proud, to be: her love and support for me has been, and will remain, the mainstay of my life. vi PUBLICATIONS EMANATING FROM THIS RESEARCH Faulkner, C. (in press). Women’s experiences of principalship of two co-educational high schools in South Africa in multiply deprived rural areas: a life history approach. Educational Management, Administration and Leadership,43(3). vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I owe a huge debt of gratitude to the following people: My unbelievably patient supervisor, Professor Tony Bush, whose knowledge, wisdom, advice and support I have greatly appreciated: his belief in me and the merit of this life history research has been of inestimable value on the long journey I have taken to the completion of this thesis. Thank you for helping me to complete this marathon academic journey: with the sprint to the finish that you always anticipated. The women principals who have made this research possible and whose commitment to the process over several years is a mark of their professionalism, their desire to contribute to educational knowledge in all areas, and a gesture of solidarity with me . I came to know and share so much about and with them; of their lives, their families and their work: the funny, the sad, the traumatic and the times and events in between. I remain humbled by what they have achieved and what they continue to do against the many odds stacked against them. Their contribution to my life in, and knowledge of, my adopted country will remain with me always. The friends and colleagues in the School of Education who have given me advice, support and encouragement on this long journey; particularly my good friend, Professor James Stiles, who also introduced me to the work of Sara Lawrence - Lightfoot and portraiture; Dr Kerryn Dixon and Professor Jane Castle whose understanding and compassion during the difficult times that I faced during the research process because of family bereavements and ill health was truly helpful; to my colleagues in ELPS, Professor Felix Maringe and Dr Zakhele Mbokazi for their insightful comments on the thesis in progress; and to Dr Francine DeClercq, Ms Hanchen Koornhof, Dr Martin Prew and Professor Brahm Fleisch, who spurred me on when the going got tough, with humour and helpful anecdotes. My family and the many kind friends who have cheered me on in a multitude of ways towards the completion of this thesis, but special thanks are due to Dr Shirley Mahlase, who in addition to encouraging me onwards, also introduced me to some very useful research in gender and leadership, the field to which she has contributed so much; to Dr Cathy Pickering and Mrs Shelley Seiler for volunteering their time to read the chapters: a gesture above and beyond the call of friendship. My very dear husband and best friend, David Lea, whose unfailing support, kindness, patience and interest in this research has kept me on track even in the most difficult of times, of which there have been many, over the course of the six years: always maintaining his good humour even when I lost mine. His belief in me and my capability to succeed in completing this marathon task in pursuit of what has been almost a lifetime’s goal has been of immeasurable help. He truly is a very lovely man. viii GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ACE Advanced Certificate in Education ANC African National Congress DET Department of Education and Training (for black children pre-1994 in South Africa) DCSF Department of Children, Schools and Families (UK Government department between 2007 and 2010 following de-merger of Department for Education and Skills) Employment Equity Act (SA) 1998 See Appendix 1 ERA Equal Rights Amendment to the US Constitution – passed by US Congress in 1972 but not yet ratified by state legislatures GDE Gauteng Department of Education HED Higher Education Diploma HoD Head of Department Labour Relations Act (SA) 1995 See Appendix 1 NGK Nederduitse Gereformeerede Kerk (Dutch Reformed Church of South Africa) SADTU South African Democratic Teachers Union UNISA University of South Africa WAAF Women’s Auxiliary Air Force (UK: 1939 – 1949) ix CONTENTS CONTENTS.............................................................................................................................. x CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT OF THE STUDY .......................... 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 1 The Narrative Approach: a Personal Perspective on the Study ...................................................... 1 Background of the study: a general perspective ................................................................................ 5 Women’s aspirations and status: an historical overview ................................................................. 11 Context of the study: gender and leadership issues in South Africa – pre-and post-democracy 1994 .......................................................................................................................................................... 13 South African women principals – attitudes and expectations ........................................................ 18 Aims of the study .............................................................................................................................