<p> 1</p><p>Appendix. Ecological factors influencing vigilance among species of foraging birds. Data are sorted by year of study. </p><p>Species Body mass (g) Sample size Maximum group Diet Vigilance alone Asymptotic % time spent in References size (%) vigilance (%) agonistic activities</p><p>Anser albifrons 2075 100 vegetation 3 Owen 1972</p><p>Sturnus vulgaris 87.6 236 10 seeds 47.00 12 Powell 1974</p><p>Branta leucopsis 1550 200 vegetation 10.10 0.3 Ebbinge et al. 1975</p><p>Branta leucopsis 1788 28 2000 vegetation 33.00 6.00 Drent and Swiestra 1977</p><p>Anser albifrons 2075 42 1061 vegetation 65.00 5 Lazarus and Inglis 1978</p><p>Anser brachyrhynchus 2770 2235 33 vegetation 5.00 0 Lazarus 1978</p><p>Branta bernicla 1370 43 600 vegetation 25.00 10.00 Inglis and Isaacson 1978</p><p>Junco phaeonotus 20.4 97 10 seeds 28.10 10.00 Caraco 1979</p><p>Numenius arquata 742 42 28 invertebrates 16.20 3.00 Abramson 1979</p><p>Junco phaeonotus 20.4 267 7 seeds 66.00 34 9 Caraco et al. 1980</p><p>Passer domesticus 28 98 50 seeds 6 Barnard 1980 2</p><p>Passer domesticus 28 37 4 seeds 62.00 47 McVean and Haddlesey 1980</p><p>Struthio camelus 111000 70 4 vegetation 34.90 14 Bertram 1980</p><p>Sturnus vulgaris 87.6 39 225 invertebrates 27.30 2 Jennings and Evans 1980</p><p>Branta bernicla 1370 64 1800 vegetation 25.00 9 Inglis and Lazarus 1981</p><p>Corvus frugilegus 489 139 30 invertebrates 56.00 12 Waite 1981</p><p>Chionis minor 625 75 30 invertebrates 8.00 3 Burger 1982</p><p>Anas platyrhynchos 1082 1000 seeds 10 1 Jorde et al. 1983</p><p>Passer domesticus 28 5 6 seeds Elcavage and Caraco 1983</p><p>Passer domesticus 28 57 4 seeds 80.67 38.00 1.4 Studd et al. 1983</p><p>Anas strepera 968 100 vegetation 11.1 0.5 Paulus 1984</p><p>Eudocimus albus 1036 39 78 invertebrates 5.7 Bildstein 1983</p><p>Passer domesticus 28 541 4 seeds Elgar et al. 1984</p><p>Picoides pubescens 27.5 160 4 invertebrates 11.10 Sullivan 1984</p><p>Streptopelia risoria 152 22 6 seeds Lendrem 1984</p><p>Cyanistes caeruleus 11.1 10 5 seeds 12.00 Hegner 1985 3</p><p>Haliaeetus leucocephalus 4130 110 14 carrion 40 Knight and Knight 1986</p><p>Anas americana 792 15 vegetation 4 0.9 Turnbull and Baldassare 1987</p><p>Carduelis carduelis 16 1 seeds 68.00 Glück 1987</p><p>Corcorax melanorhamphos 364 62 33 seeds 7.00 Heinsohn 1987</p><p>Eudocimus albus 1036 25 15 invertebrates 75.00 18.00 Petit and Bildstein 1987</p><p>Fringilla coelebs 21.9 196 11 seeds 60 Beveridge and Deag 1987</p><p>Grus americana 7300 7 invertebrates 6.30 Hunt 1987</p><p>Passer domesticus 28 75 4 seeds 52.00 25.00 1 Lima 1987</p><p>Passer domesticus 28 281 10 seeds 39.00 Beveridge and Deag 1987</p><p>Plocepasser mahali 44 49 4 mixed 16.5 Ferguson 1987</p><p>Poecile montana 11.1 2064 4 seeds 41.00 34.00 1 Ekman 1987</p><p>Sturnus vulgaris 87.6 55 14 seeds 25 Beveridge and Deag 1987</p><p>Anas fulvigula 1043 1061 10 vegetation 4.9 0.7 Paulus 1988</p><p>Calidris alpina 55.4 91 7 invertebrates 30.00 5 Redpath 1988</p><p>Chen caerulescens 2744 14500 seeds 10.3 0 Gauthier et al. 1988 4</p><p>Eolophus roseicapilla 354 199 50 seeds 49.00 12 Westcott and Cockburn 1988</p><p>Grus canadensis 3350 128 1000 mixed 1.58 0.4 Tacha 1989</p><p>Poecile montana 11.1 451 4 mixed 28.00 2 Hogstad 1988</p><p>Psephotus haematonotus 61.4 159 30 seeds 56.00 11 Westcott and Cockburn 1988</p><p>Struthio camelus 111000 159 10 vegetation 43.00 40 Burger and Gochfeld 1988</p><p>Calidris melanotus 97.8 5 invertebrates 14.8 7.3 Young 1989</p><p>Calidris pusilla 27.5 15 invertebrates 2.70 2.4 Young 1989</p><p>Limnodromus scolopaceus 100 9 invertebrates 1.88 1.1 Young 1989</p><p>Tringa flavipes 77.5 8 invertebrates 9.20 2.6 Young 1989</p><p>Chenonetta jubata 815 25 280 vegetation 13 Briggs 1990</p><p>Ciconia ciconia 3571 64 40 invertebrates 40.00 15.00 0.2 Carrascal et al. 1990</p><p>Calidris alba 57 117 11 invertebrates 3.50 0.2 Burger and Gochfeld 1991a</p><p>Cyanistes caeruleus 10.1 14 1 seeds 31.30 Moreno and Carrascal 1991</p><p>Larus atricilla 327 279 300 invertebrates 2.8 1 Burger and Gochfeld 1991b</p><p>Lophophanes cristatus 11.4 29 1 seeds 38.00 Moreno and Carrascal 1991 5</p><p>Parus major 18.9 37 1 seeds 30.30 Moreno and Carrascal 1991</p><p>Periparus ater 9.2 31 1 seeds 29.50 Moreno and Carrascal 1991</p><p>Pica pica 221 113 3 mixed 32.80 22.9 Diaz and Asensio 1991</p><p>Sitta europaea 22.6 49 1 seeds 28.20 Moreno and Carrascal 1991</p><p>Anser albifrons 2393 163 100 vegetation 29.70 Ely 1992</p><p>Branta bernicla 1760 33 1000 vegetation 5 1 Black et al. 1992</p><p>Calidris alpina 55.4 300 100 invertebrates <1% 1 Mouritsen 1992</p><p>Chen caerulescens 2744 360 7117 vegetation 5 1 Bélanger and Bédard 1992</p><p>Lophophanes cristatus 11.4 27 1 seeds 34.30 Carrascal and Moreno 1992</p><p>Periparus ater 9.2 27 1 seeds 27.80 Carrascal and Moreno 1992</p><p>Phasianus colchicus 1317 47 10 seeds 97.30 79.30 Milligan and Brigham 1992</p><p>Phoenicopterus ruber ruber 3540 887 3500 vegetation 1.1 4.9 Schmitz and Baldassarre 1992</p><p>Sitta europaea 22.6 28 1 seeds 34.80 Carrascal and Moreno 1992</p><p>Anser anser 3509 6 140 seeds 5.00 Kotrschal et al. 1993</p><p>Grus grus 5500 394 10 seeds 18.00 0.5 Alonso and Alonso 1993 6</p><p>Pica pica 189 91 12 carrion 32.00 71.00 McKinstry and Knight 1993</p><p>Anas crecca crecca 320 157 8 vegetation 37.00 30 Pöysä 1994</p><p>Ciconia ciconia 3571 167 26 invertebrates 17.5 Alonso et al. 1994</p><p>Corvus corone corone 570 1203 17 seeds 20.00 3.70 Saino 1994</p><p>Grus canadensis 3350 1250 5 mixed 16.5 0.2 Sparling and Krapu 1994</p><p>Arenaria interpres 134 9 4 invertebrates 6.46 Barbosa 1995</p><p>Calidris alba 57 23 59 invertebrates 0.90 Barbosa 1995</p><p>Calidris alpina 55.4 96 215 invertebrates 2.73 Barbosa 1995</p><p>Calidris minuta 21.1 26 46 invertebrates 1.48 Barbosa 1995</p><p>Charadrius alexandrinus 42.3 23 28 invertebrates 6.53 Barbosa 1995</p><p>Charadrius hiaticula 63.3 5 14 invertebrates 3.33 Barbosa 1995</p><p>Coccothraustes vespertinus 55.7 1472 10 seeds 37.00 15 Bekoff 1995</p><p>Gallinago gallinago 97 5 9 invertebrates 13.7 Barbosa 1995</p><p>Haematopus ostralegus 526 8 19 invertebrates 8.8 Barbosa 1995</p><p>Himantopus himantopus 161 24 13 invertebrates 3.55 Barbosa 1995 7</p><p>Junco hyemalis 19.3 117 6 seeds Lima 1995</p><p>Limosa lapponica 309 10 173 invertebrates 3.45 Barbosa 1995</p><p>Limosa limosa 252 47 178 invertebrates 3.9 Barbosa 1995</p><p>Philomachus pugnax 170 22 165 invertebrates 2.49 Barbosa 1995</p><p>Pluvialis squatarola 250 33 17 invertebrates 1.33 Barbosa 1995</p><p>Recurvirostra avosetta 304 48 146 invertebrates 4.38 Barbosa 1995</p><p>Rhea americana 23000 33 8 vegetation 34.00 13 Martella et al. 1995</p><p>Tringa totanus 129 23 169 invertebrates 5.16 Barbosa 1995</p><p>Vanellus vanellus 211 38 34 invertebrates 1.94 Barbosa 1995</p><p>Anser albifrons 2700 122 vegetation 14 0.5 Gawlik and Slack 1996</p><p>Branta canadensis 2180 38 1000 vegetation 11.00 0.5 Gawlik and Slack 1996</p><p>Chen caerulescens 2744 65 10000 vegetation 14.00 0.5 Gawlik and Slack 1996</p><p>Junco hyemalis 19.3 26 7 seeds Lima and Zollner1996</p><p>Calidris alpina 55.4 77 189 invertebrates 1.7 Barbosa 1997</p><p>Corvus brachyrhynchos 538 23 7 invertebrates 9.50 Ward and Low 1997 8</p><p>Gallus gallus 844 52 1 seeds 12.70 Burger 1997</p><p>Lonchura punctulata 13.6 6 5 seeds 62.00 35.00 Beauchamp and Livoreil 1997</p><p>Loxia leucoptera 26 511 5 seeds Benkman 1997</p><p>Rhea americana 23000 65 26 vegetation 16.00 5 Reboreda and Fernandez 1997</p><p>Calidris mauri 26.6 232 200 invertebrates 5 1 Davis and Smith 1998</p><p>Calidris minutilla 22 288 invertebrates 7 0.2 Davis and Smith 1998</p><p>Dromaius novaehollandiae 31500 136 18 seeds 47.00 47 Hough et al. 1998</p><p>Limnodromus scolopaceus 100 472 20 invertebrates 4.2 0 Davis and Smith 1998</p><p>Molothrus ater 48.7 30 7 mixed 7.3 3.3 Morris and Thompson 1998</p><p>Parus major 18.9 15 1 seeds 98.00 Krams 1998</p><p>Streptopelia chinensis 159 73 10 seeds 41.00 13 Sadedin and Elgar 1998</p><p>Struthio camelus 111000 9 3 seeds 29.00 Ross and Deeming 1998</p><p>Calidris himantopus 53.8 133 10 invertebrates 2 de Leon and Smith 1999</p><p>Calidris minutilla 22 358 6 invertebrates 10.00 de Leon and Smith 1999</p><p>Calidris pusilla 27.5 159 8 invertebrates 8 de Leon and Smith 1999 9</p><p>Haematopus ostralegus 526 159 5 invertebrates 17.00 Goss-Custard et al. 1999</p><p>Serinus serinus 11.2 35 30 seeds 63.00 Domènech and Senar 1999</p><p>Anser albifrons 2700 211 142 vegetation 15.5 Kristiansen et al. 2000</p><p>Emberiza citrinella 29.7 226 100 seeds 25.00 van der Veen 2000</p><p>Myiopsitta monachus 120 79 31 seeds 68.00 20 South and Pruett-Jones 2000</p><p>Numenius americanus 640 17 1 invertebrates 1.10 1.10 3.4 Mathis 2000</p><p>Somateria mollissima 2218 117 22 invertebrates 25.3 1 Beauchamp 2000</p><p>Anas clypeata 620 33 65 mixed 12 Guillemain et al. 2001</p><p>Anas crecca crecca 320 47 23 seeds 21.00 Guillemain et al. 2001</p><p>Corvus caurinus 415 571 80 invertebrates 50.00 20 Robinette and Ha 2001</p><p>Junco hyemalis 19.3 625 35 seeds 58.00 15 Boysen et al. 2001</p><p>Anas clypeata 620 32 13 mixed 8 Guillemain et al. 2002</p><p>Anas penelope 680 45 50 vegetation 14 Guillemain et al. 2002</p><p>Anas platyrhynchos 1082 12 12 seeds 8.30 Fritz et al. 2002</p><p>Emberiza elegans 17 43 10 seeds 32.00 24 Yamaguchi and Yahara 2002 10</p><p>Limosa limosa 252 535 30 invertebrates 20.00 10.00 Dominguez 2002</p><p>Somateria mollissima 2218 233 3 invertebrates 57.00 40.00 Ost et al. 2002</p><p>Anser albifrons 2700 58 6790 seeds 7.20 0.2 Shimada and Shimada 2003</p><p>Anser cynoides 3575 34 120 vegetation 15.00 15.00 Randler 2003</p><p>Branta leucopsis 1788 172 3374 vegetation 3.00 Carbone et al. 2003</p><p>Bubulcus ibis 372 69 40 invertebrates 6.40 Wahungu et al. 2003</p><p>Colinus virgianus 178 25 20 seeds 15.00 Williams et al. 2003</p><p>Dromaius novaehollandiae 31500 17 41 seeds 73.70 9.50 Boland 2003</p><p>Fringilla coelebs 21.9 39 1 seeds 70.00 Cresswell et al. 2003</p><p>Grus grus 5500 203 10 mixed 19.00 Aviles 2003</p><p>Fernàndez-Juricic and Schroeder Patagioenas maculosa 309 30 20 seeds 66.00 37.00 2003</p><p>Phoenicopterus ruber ruber 3540 26 100 vegetation 43.40 10.40 Beauchamp and McNeil 2003</p><p>Rhea americana 23000 40 12 vegetation 12.00 2.00 Fernandez et al. 2003</p><p>Zenaida auriculata 131 30 20 seeds 46.00 19.00 Fernàndez-Juricic and Schroeder 11</p><p>2003</p><p>Fulica atra 902 25 80 vegetation 11.10 Randler 2004</p><p>Arenaria interpres 134 15 16 invertebrates 5 Vahl et al. 2005</p><p>Calidris canutus 148 10 16 invertebrates 3 Vahl et al. 2005</p><p>Cygnus columbianus 7200 214 100 vegetation 16.90 0.7 Badzinski 2005</p><p>Nettapus pulchellus 310 207 2 vegetation 6.50 1 Nye and Dickman 2005</p><p>Anser albifrons 2700 53 3700 seeds 25.11 1.11 3.7 Amano et al. 2006</p><p>Columbina squamata 52.9 142 19 seeds 6.67 1.00 Dias 2006</p><p>Acridotheres tristis 120 310 23 invertebrates 15.20 5.70 Newey 2007</p><p>Grus grus 5500 485 564 mixed Aviles and Bednekoff 2007</p><p>Molothrus ater 48.7 126 7 seeds 88.00 65.00 Fernàndez-Juricic et al. 2007</p><p>Morgan and Fernàndez-Juricic Molothrus ater 48.7 56 8 seeds 71.00 45.00 2007</p><p>Perdix perdix 418 122 13 seeds 54.30 12.70 Watson et al. 2007</p><p>Phoenicopterus ruber roseus 3540 117 350 vegetation 18.00 30.00 Boukhriss et al. 2007b 12</p><p>Phoenicopterus ruber roseus 3540 21 31 vegetation 25.79 4.48 1 Boukhriss et al. 2007a</p><p>Turdoides bicolor 78.3 84 11 invertebrates 14.00 Radford and Ridley 2007</p><p>Miliaria calandra 53.6 137 60 seeds 36.40 Smart et al. 2008</p><p>Spizella wortheni 13 41 30 mixed 54.20 Canales-Delgadillo et al. 2008</p><p>Tringa totanus 129 296 65 invertebrates 40.00 20.00 Sansom et al. 2008 13</p><p>References</p><p>ABRAMSON, M. 1979. 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