ABRAMSON, M. 1979. Vigilance As a Factor Influencing Flock Formation Among Curlews Numenius
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Appendix. Ecological factors influencing vigilance among species of foraging birds. Data are sorted by year of study.
Species Body mass (g) Sample size Maximum group Diet Vigilance alone Asymptotic % time spent in References size (%) vigilance (%) agonistic activities
Anser albifrons 2075 100 vegetation 3 Owen 1972
Sturnus vulgaris 87.6 236 10 seeds 47.00 12 Powell 1974
Branta leucopsis 1550 200 vegetation 10.10 0.3 Ebbinge et al. 1975
Branta leucopsis 1788 28 2000 vegetation 33.00 6.00 Drent and Swiestra 1977
Anser albifrons 2075 42 1061 vegetation 65.00 5 Lazarus and Inglis 1978
Anser brachyrhynchus 2770 2235 33 vegetation 5.00 0 Lazarus 1978
Branta bernicla 1370 43 600 vegetation 25.00 10.00 Inglis and Isaacson 1978
Junco phaeonotus 20.4 97 10 seeds 28.10 10.00 Caraco 1979
Numenius arquata 742 42 28 invertebrates 16.20 3.00 Abramson 1979
Junco phaeonotus 20.4 267 7 seeds 66.00 34 9 Caraco et al. 1980
Passer domesticus 28 98 50 seeds 6 Barnard 1980 2
Passer domesticus 28 37 4 seeds 62.00 47 McVean and Haddlesey 1980
Struthio camelus 111000 70 4 vegetation 34.90 14 Bertram 1980
Sturnus vulgaris 87.6 39 225 invertebrates 27.30 2 Jennings and Evans 1980
Branta bernicla 1370 64 1800 vegetation 25.00 9 Inglis and Lazarus 1981
Corvus frugilegus 489 139 30 invertebrates 56.00 12 Waite 1981
Chionis minor 625 75 30 invertebrates 8.00 3 Burger 1982
Anas platyrhynchos 1082 1000 seeds 10 1 Jorde et al. 1983
Passer domesticus 28 5 6 seeds Elcavage and Caraco 1983
Passer domesticus 28 57 4 seeds 80.67 38.00 1.4 Studd et al. 1983
Anas strepera 968 100 vegetation 11.1 0.5 Paulus 1984
Eudocimus albus 1036 39 78 invertebrates 5.7 Bildstein 1983
Passer domesticus 28 541 4 seeds Elgar et al. 1984
Picoides pubescens 27.5 160 4 invertebrates 11.10 Sullivan 1984
Streptopelia risoria 152 22 6 seeds Lendrem 1984
Cyanistes caeruleus 11.1 10 5 seeds 12.00 Hegner 1985 3
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 4130 110 14 carrion 40 Knight and Knight 1986
Anas americana 792 15 vegetation 4 0.9 Turnbull and Baldassare 1987
Carduelis carduelis 16 1 seeds 68.00 Glück 1987
Corcorax melanorhamphos 364 62 33 seeds 7.00 Heinsohn 1987
Eudocimus albus 1036 25 15 invertebrates 75.00 18.00 Petit and Bildstein 1987
Fringilla coelebs 21.9 196 11 seeds 60 Beveridge and Deag 1987
Grus americana 7300 7 invertebrates 6.30 Hunt 1987
Passer domesticus 28 75 4 seeds 52.00 25.00 1 Lima 1987
Passer domesticus 28 281 10 seeds 39.00 Beveridge and Deag 1987
Plocepasser mahali 44 49 4 mixed 16.5 Ferguson 1987
Poecile montana 11.1 2064 4 seeds 41.00 34.00 1 Ekman 1987
Sturnus vulgaris 87.6 55 14 seeds 25 Beveridge and Deag 1987
Anas fulvigula 1043 1061 10 vegetation 4.9 0.7 Paulus 1988
Calidris alpina 55.4 91 7 invertebrates 30.00 5 Redpath 1988
Chen caerulescens 2744 14500 seeds 10.3 0 Gauthier et al. 1988 4
Eolophus roseicapilla 354 199 50 seeds 49.00 12 Westcott and Cockburn 1988
Grus canadensis 3350 128 1000 mixed 1.58 0.4 Tacha 1989
Poecile montana 11.1 451 4 mixed 28.00 2 Hogstad 1988
Psephotus haematonotus 61.4 159 30 seeds 56.00 11 Westcott and Cockburn 1988
Struthio camelus 111000 159 10 vegetation 43.00 40 Burger and Gochfeld 1988
Calidris melanotus 97.8 5 invertebrates 14.8 7.3 Young 1989
Calidris pusilla 27.5 15 invertebrates 2.70 2.4 Young 1989
Limnodromus scolopaceus 100 9 invertebrates 1.88 1.1 Young 1989
Tringa flavipes 77.5 8 invertebrates 9.20 2.6 Young 1989
Chenonetta jubata 815 25 280 vegetation 13 Briggs 1990
Ciconia ciconia 3571 64 40 invertebrates 40.00 15.00 0.2 Carrascal et al. 1990
Calidris alba 57 117 11 invertebrates 3.50 0.2 Burger and Gochfeld 1991a
Cyanistes caeruleus 10.1 14 1 seeds 31.30 Moreno and Carrascal 1991
Larus atricilla 327 279 300 invertebrates 2.8 1 Burger and Gochfeld 1991b
Lophophanes cristatus 11.4 29 1 seeds 38.00 Moreno and Carrascal 1991 5
Parus major 18.9 37 1 seeds 30.30 Moreno and Carrascal 1991
Periparus ater 9.2 31 1 seeds 29.50 Moreno and Carrascal 1991
Pica pica 221 113 3 mixed 32.80 22.9 Diaz and Asensio 1991
Sitta europaea 22.6 49 1 seeds 28.20 Moreno and Carrascal 1991
Anser albifrons 2393 163 100 vegetation 29.70 Ely 1992
Branta bernicla 1760 33 1000 vegetation 5 1 Black et al. 1992
Calidris alpina 55.4 300 100 invertebrates <1% 1 Mouritsen 1992
Chen caerulescens 2744 360 7117 vegetation 5 1 Bélanger and Bédard 1992
Lophophanes cristatus 11.4 27 1 seeds 34.30 Carrascal and Moreno 1992
Periparus ater 9.2 27 1 seeds 27.80 Carrascal and Moreno 1992
Phasianus colchicus 1317 47 10 seeds 97.30 79.30 Milligan and Brigham 1992
Phoenicopterus ruber ruber 3540 887 3500 vegetation 1.1 4.9 Schmitz and Baldassarre 1992
Sitta europaea 22.6 28 1 seeds 34.80 Carrascal and Moreno 1992
Anser anser 3509 6 140 seeds 5.00 Kotrschal et al. 1993
Grus grus 5500 394 10 seeds 18.00 0.5 Alonso and Alonso 1993 6
Pica pica 189 91 12 carrion 32.00 71.00 McKinstry and Knight 1993
Anas crecca crecca 320 157 8 vegetation 37.00 30 Pöysä 1994
Ciconia ciconia 3571 167 26 invertebrates 17.5 Alonso et al. 1994
Corvus corone corone 570 1203 17 seeds 20.00 3.70 Saino 1994
Grus canadensis 3350 1250 5 mixed 16.5 0.2 Sparling and Krapu 1994
Arenaria interpres 134 9 4 invertebrates 6.46 Barbosa 1995
Calidris alba 57 23 59 invertebrates 0.90 Barbosa 1995
Calidris alpina 55.4 96 215 invertebrates 2.73 Barbosa 1995
Calidris minuta 21.1 26 46 invertebrates 1.48 Barbosa 1995
Charadrius alexandrinus 42.3 23 28 invertebrates 6.53 Barbosa 1995
Charadrius hiaticula 63.3 5 14 invertebrates 3.33 Barbosa 1995
Coccothraustes vespertinus 55.7 1472 10 seeds 37.00 15 Bekoff 1995
Gallinago gallinago 97 5 9 invertebrates 13.7 Barbosa 1995
Haematopus ostralegus 526 8 19 invertebrates 8.8 Barbosa 1995
Himantopus himantopus 161 24 13 invertebrates 3.55 Barbosa 1995 7
Junco hyemalis 19.3 117 6 seeds Lima 1995
Limosa lapponica 309 10 173 invertebrates 3.45 Barbosa 1995
Limosa limosa 252 47 178 invertebrates 3.9 Barbosa 1995
Philomachus pugnax 170 22 165 invertebrates 2.49 Barbosa 1995
Pluvialis squatarola 250 33 17 invertebrates 1.33 Barbosa 1995
Recurvirostra avosetta 304 48 146 invertebrates 4.38 Barbosa 1995
Rhea americana 23000 33 8 vegetation 34.00 13 Martella et al. 1995
Tringa totanus 129 23 169 invertebrates 5.16 Barbosa 1995
Vanellus vanellus 211 38 34 invertebrates 1.94 Barbosa 1995
Anser albifrons 2700 122 vegetation 14 0.5 Gawlik and Slack 1996
Branta canadensis 2180 38 1000 vegetation 11.00 0.5 Gawlik and Slack 1996
Chen caerulescens 2744 65 10000 vegetation 14.00 0.5 Gawlik and Slack 1996
Junco hyemalis 19.3 26 7 seeds Lima and Zollner1996
Calidris alpina 55.4 77 189 invertebrates 1.7 Barbosa 1997
Corvus brachyrhynchos 538 23 7 invertebrates 9.50 Ward and Low 1997 8
Gallus gallus 844 52 1 seeds 12.70 Burger 1997
Lonchura punctulata 13.6 6 5 seeds 62.00 35.00 Beauchamp and Livoreil 1997
Loxia leucoptera 26 511 5 seeds Benkman 1997
Rhea americana 23000 65 26 vegetation 16.00 5 Reboreda and Fernandez 1997
Calidris mauri 26.6 232 200 invertebrates 5 1 Davis and Smith 1998
Calidris minutilla 22 288 invertebrates 7 0.2 Davis and Smith 1998
Dromaius novaehollandiae 31500 136 18 seeds 47.00 47 Hough et al. 1998
Limnodromus scolopaceus 100 472 20 invertebrates 4.2 0 Davis and Smith 1998
Molothrus ater 48.7 30 7 mixed 7.3 3.3 Morris and Thompson 1998
Parus major 18.9 15 1 seeds 98.00 Krams 1998
Streptopelia chinensis 159 73 10 seeds 41.00 13 Sadedin and Elgar 1998
Struthio camelus 111000 9 3 seeds 29.00 Ross and Deeming 1998
Calidris himantopus 53.8 133 10 invertebrates 2 de Leon and Smith 1999
Calidris minutilla 22 358 6 invertebrates 10.00 de Leon and Smith 1999
Calidris pusilla 27.5 159 8 invertebrates 8 de Leon and Smith 1999 9
Haematopus ostralegus 526 159 5 invertebrates 17.00 Goss-Custard et al. 1999
Serinus serinus 11.2 35 30 seeds 63.00 Domènech and Senar 1999
Anser albifrons 2700 211 142 vegetation 15.5 Kristiansen et al. 2000
Emberiza citrinella 29.7 226 100 seeds 25.00 van der Veen 2000
Myiopsitta monachus 120 79 31 seeds 68.00 20 South and Pruett-Jones 2000
Numenius americanus 640 17 1 invertebrates 1.10 1.10 3.4 Mathis 2000
Somateria mollissima 2218 117 22 invertebrates 25.3 1 Beauchamp 2000
Anas clypeata 620 33 65 mixed 12 Guillemain et al. 2001
Anas crecca crecca 320 47 23 seeds 21.00 Guillemain et al. 2001
Corvus caurinus 415 571 80 invertebrates 50.00 20 Robinette and Ha 2001
Junco hyemalis 19.3 625 35 seeds 58.00 15 Boysen et al. 2001
Anas clypeata 620 32 13 mixed 8 Guillemain et al. 2002
Anas penelope 680 45 50 vegetation 14 Guillemain et al. 2002
Anas platyrhynchos 1082 12 12 seeds 8.30 Fritz et al. 2002
Emberiza elegans 17 43 10 seeds 32.00 24 Yamaguchi and Yahara 2002 10
Limosa limosa 252 535 30 invertebrates 20.00 10.00 Dominguez 2002
Somateria mollissima 2218 233 3 invertebrates 57.00 40.00 Ost et al. 2002
Anser albifrons 2700 58 6790 seeds 7.20 0.2 Shimada and Shimada 2003
Anser cynoides 3575 34 120 vegetation 15.00 15.00 Randler 2003
Branta leucopsis 1788 172 3374 vegetation 3.00 Carbone et al. 2003
Bubulcus ibis 372 69 40 invertebrates 6.40 Wahungu et al. 2003
Colinus virgianus 178 25 20 seeds 15.00 Williams et al. 2003
Dromaius novaehollandiae 31500 17 41 seeds 73.70 9.50 Boland 2003
Fringilla coelebs 21.9 39 1 seeds 70.00 Cresswell et al. 2003
Grus grus 5500 203 10 mixed 19.00 Aviles 2003
Fernàndez-Juricic and Schroeder Patagioenas maculosa 309 30 20 seeds 66.00 37.00 2003
Phoenicopterus ruber ruber 3540 26 100 vegetation 43.40 10.40 Beauchamp and McNeil 2003
Rhea americana 23000 40 12 vegetation 12.00 2.00 Fernandez et al. 2003
Zenaida auriculata 131 30 20 seeds 46.00 19.00 Fernàndez-Juricic and Schroeder 11
2003
Fulica atra 902 25 80 vegetation 11.10 Randler 2004
Arenaria interpres 134 15 16 invertebrates 5 Vahl et al. 2005
Calidris canutus 148 10 16 invertebrates 3 Vahl et al. 2005
Cygnus columbianus 7200 214 100 vegetation 16.90 0.7 Badzinski 2005
Nettapus pulchellus 310 207 2 vegetation 6.50 1 Nye and Dickman 2005
Anser albifrons 2700 53 3700 seeds 25.11 1.11 3.7 Amano et al. 2006
Columbina squamata 52.9 142 19 seeds 6.67 1.00 Dias 2006
Acridotheres tristis 120 310 23 invertebrates 15.20 5.70 Newey 2007
Grus grus 5500 485 564 mixed Aviles and Bednekoff 2007
Molothrus ater 48.7 126 7 seeds 88.00 65.00 Fernàndez-Juricic et al. 2007
Morgan and Fernàndez-Juricic Molothrus ater 48.7 56 8 seeds 71.00 45.00 2007
Perdix perdix 418 122 13 seeds 54.30 12.70 Watson et al. 2007
Phoenicopterus ruber roseus 3540 117 350 vegetation 18.00 30.00 Boukhriss et al. 2007b 12
Phoenicopterus ruber roseus 3540 21 31 vegetation 25.79 4.48 1 Boukhriss et al. 2007a
Turdoides bicolor 78.3 84 11 invertebrates 14.00 Radford and Ridley 2007
Miliaria calandra 53.6 137 60 seeds 36.40 Smart et al. 2008
Spizella wortheni 13 41 30 mixed 54.20 Canales-Delgadillo et al. 2008
Tringa totanus 129 296 65 invertebrates 40.00 20.00 Sansom et al. 2008 13
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