1.1 Background of the Study

SYNOPSIS1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the studyThe Temples were / are constructed with the purpose of installing the image or idol of the desired God or Goddess whose presence concentrated at the heart and focus of the building. The main deity is installed in garbhag¤ha mostly square in plan shape with in the ¿rikovil. The ¿rikovil may be square, rectangle, circle, apsidal or polygonal in plan shape as seen generally in Kerala. The spaces, forms and decorations vary from temple to temple to bring in certain uniqueness to individual temples. Many other geometrical shapes, space, forms and decorations are prescribed in v¡stu texts and are built, in other parts of the country.Pr¡s¡da is such a structure, which pleases the soul, mind and the eyes of human and non human beings. It has the interior, the exterior and essence of expression. As perViÀ¸udharmottarapur¡¸a (3,94) temples were built in towns, villages and inhabitant places only during Kaliyuga for the 2 people to worship God /Goddess in iconic forms. Tantric way of worship was followed in the state of Kerala and temples' architecture developed and temples built accordingly. Tantrasamuccaya, áeÀasamuccaya, áilparatna,K¡¿yap¢ya, Ìs¡nagurudevapadhati, áilpiratna and to certain extent, Mayamata supported partially or fully the tantric way of worship and styles and functions of temple architecture.The initial studies carried out through initiation to relevant literature, site visits and discussions with experts revealed that the basic plan shapes of Kerala temple ¿rikovils are limited and many plan shapes adopted elsewhere were absent. The special constructions are also limited to three storeys, though texts give details for storeys upto 12 to 16.The Kerala temple ¿rikovils have definite forms though simple to complex forms are prescribed in texts and practiced on ground. However, varieties are created in the shapes, spaces and forms by certain additions/modifications in the interior and exterior to have the uniqueness to the temples.There is unity in diversity. V¡stu texts allow considerable amount of flexibility in concepts, canons and constructions. 3These in built flexibility also provide unity in diversity and vice versa.1.2 Review of Earlier Works.V¡stuvidya is spread over vedas, ved¡ngas, upavedas,¡ranyakas, sutras, samhitas, pur¡nas, ithih¡sas, ¡gamas, compilations, translations, commentaries and research works.The main information sought for from earlier works are fromMatsyapur¡na, Garudapur¡na, Agnipur¡na,ViÀnudharmottarapur¡na B¤hatsamhita, K¡syap¢ya,V¡stuvidya, Mayamata, M¡nas¡ra, Samar¡nganas£tradh¡ra,Tantrasamuccaya, áeÀasamuccaya, V¡stusutropanisad,Aparajitap¤cca, Pr¡s¡damandana, áilparatna, Vi¿vakarmaV¡stu¿¡stra, V¡stu¿ilpakoÀa, Kriy¡dipika, áulbasutra,Tantrasamuccaya, Kuzhikkattupacca, Putay£rbhaÀa,K¡mik¡gama, Suprabh®dhakama, ViÀnav¡gama,Thacu¿¡stram Bh¡Àa, Hindu temples of India, V¡stu¿¡straVol. I and Vol. II, Tantradarpanam, and so on.A review of the Ph.D. theses authored by previous researchers include the works of Dr. D. N. Sukla based onSamar¡nganasutra-dh¡ra, Dr. P. K. Acharya based on 4M¡nas¡ra, Dr. Stella Karmarisch on Hindu temples, Dr.Balagopal T. S. Prabhu's post doctoral work, "Engineering commentary on ManuÀy¡lacandrika", Dr. C.V. Lal's work onMaterials in V¡stu constructions, Dr. Arundhati Devi's work on Manasoll¡sa, Dr. V. R. J. Ambadkar's work on Industrial V¡stu, Dr. P.V. Ouseph's work on ManuÀy¡layacandrika, Dr. Sethumadhavan's work on Bhuparigraha, etc indicate that only few research works had been done in the past in v¡stuvidya. Out of those works given above, the works done by Dr.Stella Karmarisch, Dr. P. K. Acharya and Dr. D. N.Sukla have relative significance with temple architecture.They have given extensive literature reviews, tried to compare the concepts of various authors, given their interpretations on a broad spectrum of temple architecture.The Sanskrit versions of the texts/books make it difficult to understand, interpret and put them into practice.Further, the body of knowledge is scattered over several books and some are out of prints.1.3 Research Problem 5The initial literature review, discussions with experts and site visits revealed that the previous studies gave a broad spectrum of temple architecture. Specific and critical studies on Kerala temple ¿rikovils were not taken up before for research work. The body of knowledge is scattered over several texts and there is need for an attempt to bring them in a comprehensive manner as much as possible. None before has attempted to study the concepts, canons and constructions of Kerala temple ¿rikovils from engineering points of view.There are several variations in the shapes, spaces and forms of Kerala temple ¿rikovils as diversities, though at macro level there is unity in diversity. These aspects not studied or investigated or researched before are intended as the research problem in this study.1.4 Importance of the StudyThe importance of the study is given in brief as under:-(a) Very little research works using research methodology and modern tools have been done previously at academic 6 level. This endeavour has, hence, has a unique place in research of such nature and magnitude. (b) The works/studies done previously were based on texts, especially so on temple v¡stu. The study relating to ground realities on Kerala temple¿rikovils may be premier attempt and hence unique. (c) The research on unity in diversity in temple ¿rikovils is considered to be of novel approach. (d) The engineering discussions with respect to the planning, design, the shapes of¿rikovils, space and forms contributing towards the durability, safety, stability and sustenance of temple ¿rikovils of Kerala are innovative additions to the body of knowledge in temple v¡stu. (f) The study shall be useful to the students, teachers researchers and practitioners on temple v¡stu.1.5 Conceptual Frame workThe research is directed towards the critical study of structural spaces, and built forms of Kerala temple ¿rikovils with special references to apsidal forms. The literature survey revealed several plan shapes, forms and artifacts. The spaces in three dimensions are described in texts ranging from one to sixteen storeys. The Kerala temple ¿rikovils built did not 7 exceed three storeys. The mouldings, niches and artifacts, to a large extent, form part of the structural members giving not only architectural beauty but also provide additional strength and stability to the structures. Most of the researches in temple v¡stu are based on the v¡stu texts restricting them to desk research.It is intended in this study to combine the desk research, field studies and case studies. The secondary data is collected from the published texts available. Primary data are collected from scheduled interviews with experts like tantris, engineers, vastu experts and discussions with priests, artisans and certain knowledgeable persons. Pilot study showed that the response to mailed questionnaire is practically difficult.Scheduled interviews and nonscheduled discussions, were found feasible. The schedules were prepared and discussed with the experts and modified as part of the pilot study.Site visits were carried out to various temples at random. Taking measurements of ¿rikovils (outside and inside) was found to be difficult owing to the restrictions imposed by temple authorities. However, measurements of 8 few temples could be taken with the permissions and co- operation of temple authorities. The Kerala temple ¿rikovils, in most of the cases, do not have proper documentation, which make it difficult to get the measurements.Observations and approximating the measurements are the choices left.As far as possible, the engineering discussions are made on the v¡stu concepts, canons, and constructions. The concepts, canons and rules are verified with those prescribed in various texts in certain cases.The temple ¿rikovils built as per Kerala temple v¡stu only are taken up for the study. The st¡nas, tharas, k¡vus, pur¡s, aras, pa½½iyar¡s, etc which have not been built as per temple v¡stu, does not have idol as pratiÀta, doesn't have pr¡k¡ras and pujas on regular basis have been omitted from the scope of temples.Endeavour is made to follow appropriate steps of the research methodology in this study i.e., Veekshan- nireekshana-parikshana-manovisakalana-tatvadar¿ana- 9 granth¡viskarana (viewing, observing-testing-analysing- deriving valid conclusions and forming book).1.6 Significance of the studyThe study is unique and significant as:-(a) It is probably a prime effort in researching as an academic pursuit in temple v¡stu. (b) Research methodology has been adopted which is seldom followed in such studies.(c)Engineering discussions provide innovative steps in temple v¡stu. (d) Simplifications of canons derived from Sanskrit slokas and their tabulations help in easier references and studies. (e) The study will be useful for further researches and studies.1.7 Scope of the studyThe main scope of the study is as:-(a) Review of literature in general on v¡stu texts. (b) Specific review of literature pertaining to the topic of the study. (c) An overview of structural space, shapes and forms of temple¿rikovils in general. (d) An overview of structural shapes, spaces and shapes of 10Kerala temple ¿rikovils. (e) Specific study of ¿rikovils of apsidal forms in Kerala. (f) Case studies on ¿rikovils of apsidal forms. (g) Presentation of data, analysis and interpretations as per data obtained from tantris, v¡stu experts, engineers and architects, artisans, site visits and discussions with various persons. (h) Engineering discussions on the temple v¡stu principles and practices with emphasis on the sustainability, strength, stability and durability of Kerala temple ¿rikovils. (i) Findings and conclusion.1.8 Objectives of the studyThe broad objectives of the study are:-(a) Carryout critical study of the principles, concepts and canons pertaining to the Kerala temple ¿rikovils with regard to the structural, spaces and built forms with special reference to apsidal forms. (b)Carryout field study and relate the principles, concepts and canons to the ground realities. (c)Give a beginning to simplification of canons pertaining to space and forms of Kerala temple ¿rikovils. (d) Carryout engineering discussions pertaining to the structural spaces and forms with respect to the durability, stability and 11 sustainability of Kerala temple ¿rikovils. (e) Serve the thesis for the award of the degree of Ph.D. of the University.1.9 Methodology1.9.1 General. The methodology adopted is a combination of desk, field and case studies. Primary data are collected through scheduled interviews with those experts like tantris, v¡stu pandits and practitioners and engineers. Unscheduled interviews/discussions are conducted to gather general, peripheral and historical information with priests, their assistants, temple employees and old people, artisans and knowledgeable persons on the subject. The information collected from unscheduled interviews/discussions also form part of the primary data. The site visits were carried out to various temples as part of the case studies and observe the visible peculiarities/specificity of temple ¿rikovils.Secondary data are collected through the study of literature in the form of published books, mainly the v¡stu texts and books relevant to the topic. 121.9.2 Sampling. There are about 24,000 temples built as per temple v¡stu principles. The small temples like k¡vu, ara, palliyara, pura, st¡na, etc which do not confirm to v¡stu principles or temple rites do not have shrines installed are excluded. Tantris selected at random and responded gave details of temples in which they perform the rites. The number came to be... 2837 fairly good number of samples for validation. The sampling error works out to be 0.80% at 95% confidence level. The details obtained from v¡stu experts on temples cover to 3257 temples with sampling error of 0.75% at 95% confidence level.1.9.3 Scheduled Interviews. Separate schedules for interviews are at Appendix A, B, and C for tantris, v¡stu experts and engineers.1.9.4 Site visits and Discussions. Carried out visits to temples at various locations having varieties of shapes, spaces and forms. Carried out discussions with temple authorities, ¿¡nthis and other persons and gathered data to the possible extent. 131.9.5 Case Studies. From the information gathered from the discussions with tantris, few temples having certain uniqueness were taken up for site visits. A separate chapter is devoted for case studies of apsidal ¿rikovils. 1.9.6 Statistical Tools. Simple statistical tools are used to make the study comprehensive and clear. The tools used are: scheduled interviews, case studies, tabulations, charts and diagrams and simple comparisons like averages and percentages.1.10Limitations of the StudyThe scope of the study is immense. It has to be restricted due to the time and space constraints. Other limitations are:-(a) Geometrical vastness in the spread of temples in Kerala is large. Hence the extensive coverage has to be restricted. (b)Temples having ¿rikovils with deities and built as per v¡stu principles only have been considered. (c) Hesitation on the part of the tantris, temple authorities and learned people in divulging the information and technical and other objection in taking measurements were major constraints. 142. CHAPTERS OF THE THESIS 2.1 Chapters of the thesisThe chapters are as under:-(a)Chapter 1. Introduction. In this chapter brief background of the study, review of earlier works, research problems, importance of the study, conceptual framework, significance of the study, scope of the study methodology and limitations are given.(b)Chapter 2. Review of Literature. The review of literature has been done under the sub headings of v¡stu related texts and literature specific to the study. The postulates from the review of literature have been derived. A total of 89 texts/ books have been reviewed. Literatures specific to the topic are arranged as per the main elements in tabular forms.(c)Chapter 3. In this chapter a brief review of structural spaces, shapes and forms of built ¿rikovils in general have been discussed. The synthesis and postulates have been derived. 15(d)Chapter 4. In this chapter the structural shapes, spaces and forms of built ¿rikovils in Kerala have been discussed in brief. The v¡stu canon are summarised and presented in tabular form. The postulates have been derived.(e)Chapter 5. Specific study on the apsidal shaped ¿rikovils with respect to their shapes, spaces and forms have been carried out. The inferences are included in this chapter. (f) Chapter 6. Case studies of 21 apsidal ¿rikovils of Kerala and the discussion have been included in this chapter.(g)Chapter 7. The data collected through interviews with tantris, v¡stu experts, engineers and architects, site visits and discussions with various authorities and persons are presented separately, relevant to the study. The data are analysed and interpretations made using various simple tools of analysis. (h)Chapter 8. Engineering discussions on the structural spaces, shapes and forms of built ¿rikovils are made in this chapter., specific references to the apsidal forms are discussed. The stability, sustainability, strength and durability aspects, seismic measures and materials for 16 constructions are discussed from engineering point of view. The views expressed by the respondents are also analysed from engineering point of view and interpretations included in this chapter.(i) Chapter 9. The findings derived from each chapter are summarised in brief in this chapter in general and specific to apsidal forms.(j) Chapter 10. The conclusion pertaining to the study is given in this chapter.2.2 Bibliography and Appendices. The bibliography of118 books is given at the end of the chapters. Number of diagrams, sketches and plates are indexed and included in the thesis. The Appendices A to C are for the schedules of interviews with the tantries, v¡stu experts and engineers.Appendix D pertains to the list of persons interviewed/discussed with (127 numbers). Annextures are given for basic calculations. A number of diagrams and plates are indexed and given in the main thesis. 17 183. BRIEF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION3.1 Chapter wise findings are given in the thesis in the chapter 9.Conclusion is given in chapter 10. Brief findings and conclusion are given in subsequent paragraphs.3.2 Brief FindingsThe brief findings are given below:-(a) V¡stu constructions are done as per proper dimensions and proportions with the intrinsic rhythm, grammar and aesthetics. There are wide range of flexibility inbuilt in v¡stu¿¡stra in the concepts, canons and principles in the planning, design and construction of temple ¿rikovils.(b) There are several classifications of temple ¿rikovils based on plan shapes, sizes, storeys, built forms, decorations, magnitudes, materials of construction, interiors and so on.(c) Temples are associated with worships, scheme of architecture, development of concepts, knowledge and sets of skills. 19(d) The plan shapes of Kerala temple ¿rikovils are limited to square, rectangular, circular, apsidal, octagonal and elliptical. The number of storeys are limited to three.The garbhag¤has are small and are mostly of square in plan and few as per the shapes of ¿rikovils. AdÅist¡nas are invariably provided and upapitas are optional.MukÅamandapas are optional.(e) Temples were built in Kerala even before Christian era.The present state of spaces and forms underwent transformation and evolutions over centuries. Square¿rikovils account for about 75%, rectangular about 12% apsidal about 0.5%, circular about 11% and only about0.5% in other shapes.(f) The structural spaces both horizontal and vertical and also forms of ¿rikovils provide the exquisite interiors, exteriors and decorations, stability, strength, sustainability and durability. The alank¡ras not only provide beauty but also serve as partial structural members providing strength and stability. 20(g) Knowledge about apsidal shapes and forms were known for more than 2000 years. Most of the apsidal¿rikovils withstood for centuries. The apsidal ¿rikovils have several peculiarities in their plan shapes, spaces and forms. Most of the garbhag¤has are of apsidal shapes. The axial symmetry is only about Y axis. Other two axes X and Z are asymmetrical. The ground plan is a square with half circle at the back. In the vertical spaces the half portion is half cylindrical with half circular cone on top. Most of the ¿rikovils have mukhama¸dapas either square or nearly square in plans.There are one, two or three stupis. The decorations are progressive with the sizes of ¿rikovils.(h) Case studies of 21 apsidal ¿rikovils confirmed the peculiarities given above. Each and every temple has certain uniqueness obtained through variations in the structural spaces, forms and decorations. The varieties are evident from the ground plan prepared based on case studies. 21(i) Data collected through interviews with tantris, v¡stu experts, engineers and knowledgeable people (130 persons) and analysed give interesting findings as:-(i) The accurate designs, adherence to v¡stu concepts, peculiar plan shapes and spaces, gradual and careful constructions, proper proportioning, use of strong materials, special structure, higher factors of safety, timely repairs, strong foundations and walls etc contribute towards the structural stability, sustenance, strength and durability of ¿rikovils. (ii) There is need to integrate the temple v¡stu with modern technology, methodology and management in the planning, design, construction and maintenance of temple ¿rikovils. (iii)There is need for documenting the structural details of¿rikovils. There is need to train and refresh the skills of artisans. There is need to unify the measurement system. (iv) There are broader views on planning and designs not only based on the textural canons and principles but also based on the local practices, guru upade¿a, logics, conveniences, beauty and perceptions 22 of owners and stapatis. (v) Apsidal ¿rikovils represent combination of the Nagara and Ve¿ara traditions. The peculiarities were confirmed on site visits, case studies and discussions. (j) The engineering discussions under the headings of structural spaces, structural forms, materials of construction, factors contributing towards sustainability and durability, structural characteristics of apsidal¿rikovils and strengthening measures against seismic effects bring out engineering visions and foresights of ancient v¡stu experts. The concepts coincide with modern engineering at macro levels.(k) The system process, integration of elements, pre engineering in the planning, design and construction require special mention. However, integration with modern technologies and methodologies and unified approach will improve the accuracy, speed and economy. There are wide scopes for improvements in these fields.3.3 Brief Conclusion 23The brief conclusion is given in subsequent paragraphs.The thesis entitled "A critical study of structural spaces and built forms of Kerala Temple ¿rikovils with special references to apsidal forms" is probably the first one in the field.Temples were built in Kerala even before the Christian era. The built forms of ¿rikovils of Kerala had undergone series of evolutions through centuries. The authors of text books on temple architecture from 15th century A.D referred to the previous works, compiled, modified and adopted the concepts, canons, principles and practices suitable to the region from socio-cultural, climatic, geographical and forms of worship considerations.Kerala temple ¿rikovils differ from those in other regions of India in several ways. The ground plan shapes ofKerala ¿rikovils are restricted to few regular shapes. Most of the ¿rikovils are square, few of them are rectangular and circular, very few apsidal and very rarely polygonal (mainly octagonal and oval) shapes. The garbhag¤has where the main deities are installed are small as the entry into it is 24 restricted. The Kerala ¿rikovils are mostly single storeyed, rarely two storeyed and very rarely three storeyed. There is only one ¿ikhara on the ¿rikovil in Kerala. The roof structure is mostly of sloping special structure roofed with tiles or copper plates. Recently concrete roof is being adopted. The mouldings, niches and alank¡ras are simple, progressive and unique. Stupis are provided on the k£tas on the roofs in most of the ¿rikovils.The principles and canons are strict in the planning, design and construction of temple ¿rikovils, yet have flexibility for adoption. Every element is defined by proper measurements and proportions integrated into the whole system. The measurements provide the grammar, the proportions the rhythm and the decorations the elegance and aesthetics. The varieties in spaces, forms and decorations provide uniqueness to each ¿rikovil.The review of literature has been done under the sub heads of basic texts, modern texts and specific to the topic.Eighty-nine books are reviewed. The main events / elements are listed, the main contents given in brief and essential 25 references are provided. The main references are based onTantrasamuccaya (áilpabh¡ga). There are variations / additions in other texts. The texts give the cannons and concepts in ¿loka form. Effort is made to tabulate the contents in very brief and provide various references appropriate to the sub groups for easier understanding, references and further studies.The ¿rikovil, the pr¡s¡da has unique interior and exterior. The main shrine is installed in garbhag¤ha inside the ¿rikovil. There are several classifications of ¿rikovils given in various texts based on shapes, spaces, forms, decorations, position of the diety, location, measurements, combinations of various spaces and forms and materials used for construction. The structural spaces considered in this study include the horizontal and vertical spaces. The horizontal spaces include the plan shapes, sizes and interior arrangements. The vertical spaces include the three dimensional spaces provided by the heights and number of storeys. The overall forms are dictated by the shapes, spaces, elevations, mouldings, niches, alank¡ras, artifacts. 26Apsidal forms and the geometry were known to Indians even before 2000 years. The shape, space and form are different from other regular shaped ¿rikovils in the case of apsidal ¿rikovils. Literature regarding the planning, design and construction of apsidal ¿rikovils are limited. The general features, peculiarities and analysis from the angles of structural spaces, forms and decorations of apsidal ¿rikovils are included in this study, which would be useful for future references and studies. Out of 28 apsidal ¿rikovils came to be known, 21 ¿rikovils were taken up for case studies. The ground plans of these ¿rikovils and photographs of most of these shall serve as useful documentation. The discussions on the case studies under the groupings of structural spaces, forms, decorations and materials of constructions give insight into the details of these apsidal ¿rikovils. The main differences of apsidal ¿rikovils from other regular shaped¿rikovils are in the plan shape, interior and exterior spaces- the garbhag¤has, antar¡las, mukhamandapas- the exterior elevations and the number of k£tas and stupis and the like, 27 aspect ratio, axes of symmetries, degrees of difficulties in the construction and slight variations in the decorations.The data collected from published works regarding the antiquity, shapes and spaces account for about 7200 ¿rikovils.The data collected from tantries account for 2837 ¿rikovils and that from v¡stu experts account for 3251 ¿rikovils. There may be overlaps. However, the weighted averages provide reasonably reliable results. Discussions were held with tantris, v¡stu experts, engineers, stapatis, ¿ilpins, pujakas, temple authorities and knowledgeable persons who could provide valuable information. The main reasons for the long and sustained life of ¿rikovils expressed by the tantris, v¡stu experts and engineers are more or less in agreement. Most of them are in agreement for the adoptions of modern technologies, methodologies and management with in the concepts of temple v¡stu. The influences of various styles of other regions are evident in Kerala ¿rikovils though the tantris and v¡stu experts feel the styles purely unique toKerala. 28The strong needs for unification of scales, unification of v¡stu cannons and principles with modern engineering, documentation of temple ¿rikovils by authorised bodies, studies on the structural and engineering aspects of ¿rikovils with the aim of attaining economy of resources, time and effort emerged through the study.The engineering discussions have paved the way to new dimensions in the approach to the study. The factors contributing to the sustainability, stability, strength and durability of temple ¿rikovils have been discussed with fresh approach. The suitability of the shapes, spaces, forms and strengthening measures of ¿rikovils to sustain the seismic effects are highlighted. The ancient science of building temple ¿rikovils very closely agree with the modern engineering and vice versa in this aspect.The diversities created through the variations in the structural spaces, forms and decorations to create uniqueness have been high lighted with examples.The study being probably a pioneering effort has its own uniqueness, fresh out look and innovative ideas. The 29 study would be helpful to those who intend to do researches / studies in such or similar topics. It would also be useful to those who are interested in such studies, may be v¡stu students, teachers, engineers, architects and stapatis. The study could contribute to the body of knowledge in the structural spaces and forms of Kerala ¿rikovils in general and specially in the case of apsidal ¿rikovils.The study may be taken as the beginning of fresh approach to the study of Kerala temple ¿rikovils with respect to their structural spaces and forms. It has become evident that further studies are required on such topics.

1.1 Background of the Study

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