1.1 Background of the Study

SYNOPSIS

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the study

The Temples were / are constructed with the purpose of

installing the image or idol of the desired God or Goddess

whose presence concentrated at the heart and focus of the

building. The main deity is installed in garbhag¤ha mostly

square in plan shape with in the ¿rikovil. The ¿rikovil may

be square, rectangle, circle, apsidal or polygonal in plan

shape as seen generally in Kerala. The spaces, forms and

decorations vary from temple to temple to bring in certain

uniqueness to individual temples. Many other geometrical

shapes, space, forms and decorations are prescribed in v¡stu

texts and are built, in other parts of the country.

Pr¡s¡da is such a structure, which pleases the soul,

mind and the eyes of human and non human beings. It has

the interior, the exterior and essence of expression. As per

ViÀ¸udharmottarapur¡¸a (3,94) temples were built in towns,

villages and inhabitant places only during Kaliyuga for the 2 people to worship God /Goddess in iconic forms. Tantric way of worship was followed in the state of Kerala and temples' architecture developed and temples built accordingly. Tantrasamuccaya, áeÀasamuccaya, áilparatna,

K¡¿yap¢ya, Ìs¡nagurudevapadhati, áilpiratna and to certain extent, Mayamata supported partially or fully the tantric way of worship and styles and functions of temple architecture.

The initial studies carried out through initiation to relevant literature, site visits and discussions with experts revealed that the basic plan shapes of Kerala temple ¿rikovils are limited and many plan shapes adopted elsewhere were absent. The special constructions are also limited to three storeys, though texts give details for storeys upto 12 to 16.

The Kerala temple ¿rikovils have definite forms though simple to complex forms are prescribed in texts and practiced on ground. However, varieties are created in the shapes, spaces and forms by certain additions/modifications in the interior and exterior to have the uniqueness to the temples.

There is unity in diversity. V¡stu texts allow considerable amount of flexibility in concepts, canons and constructions. 3

These in built flexibility also provide unity in diversity and

vice versa.

1.2 Review of Earlier Works.

V¡stuvidya is spread over vedas, ved¡ngas, upavedas,

¡ranyakas, sutras, samhitas, pur¡nas, ithih¡sas, ¡gamas,

compilations, translations, commentaries and research works.

The main information sought for from earlier works are from

Matsyapur¡na, Garudapur¡na, Agnipur¡na,

ViÀnudharmottarapur¡na B¤hatsamhita, K¡syap¢ya,

V¡stuvidya, Mayamata, M¡nas¡ra, Samar¡nganas£tradh¡ra,

Tantrasamuccaya, áeÀasamuccaya, V¡stusutropanisad,

Aparajitap¤cca, Pr¡s¡damandana, áilparatna, Vi¿vakarma

V¡stu¿¡stra, V¡stu¿ilpakoÀa, Kriy¡dipika, áulbasutra,

Tantrasamuccaya, Kuzhikkattupacca, Putay£rbhaÀa,

K¡mik¡gama, Suprabh®dhakama, ViÀnav¡gama,

Thacu¿¡stram Bh¡Àa, Hindu temples of India, V¡stu¿¡stra

Vol. I and Vol. II, Tantradarpanam, and so on.

A review of the Ph.D. theses authored by previous

researchers include the works of Dr. D. N. Sukla based on

Samar¡nganasutra-dh¡ra, Dr. P. K. Acharya based on 4

M¡nas¡ra, Dr. Stella Karmarisch on Hindu temples, Dr.

Balagopal T. S. Prabhu's post doctoral work, "Engineering

commentary on ManuÀy¡lacandrika", Dr. C.V. Lal's work on

Materials in V¡stu constructions, Dr. Arundhati Devi's work

on Manasoll¡sa, Dr. V. R. J. Ambadkar's work on Industrial

V¡stu, Dr. P.V. Ouseph's work on ManuÀy¡layacandrika,

Dr. Sethumadhavan's work on Bhuparigraha, etc indicate

that only few research works had been done in the past in

v¡stuvidya. Out of those works given above, the works done

by Dr.Stella Karmarisch, Dr. P. K. Acharya and Dr. D. N.

Sukla have relative significance with temple architecture.

They have given extensive literature reviews, tried to

compare the concepts of various authors, given their

interpretations on a broad spectrum of temple architecture.

The Sanskrit versions of the texts/books make it

difficult to understand, interpret and put them into practice.

Further, the body of knowledge is scattered over several

books and some are out of prints.

1.3 Research Problem 5

The initial literature review, discussions with experts and site

visits revealed that the previous studies gave a broad

spectrum of temple architecture. Specific and critical studies

on Kerala temple ¿rikovils were not taken up before for

research work. The body of knowledge is scattered over

several texts and there is need for an attempt to bring them in

a comprehensive manner as much as possible. None before

has attempted to study the concepts, canons and constructions

of Kerala temple ¿rikovils from engineering points of view.

There are several variations in the shapes, spaces and forms

of Kerala temple ¿rikovils as diversities, though at macro

level there is unity in diversity. These aspects not studied or

investigated or researched before are intended as the research

problem in this study.

1.4 Importance of the Study

The importance of the study is given in brief as under:-

(a) Very little research works using research methodology

and modern tools have been done previously at academic 6

level. This endeavour has, hence, has a unique place in

research of such nature and magnitude. (b) The works/studies

done previously were based on texts, especially so on temple

v¡stu. The study relating to ground realities on Kerala temple

¿rikovils may be premier attempt and hence unique. (c) The

research on unity in diversity in temple ¿rikovils is

considered to be of novel approach. (d) The engineering

discussions with respect to the planning, design, the shapes of

¿rikovils, space and forms contributing towards the

durability, safety, stability and sustenance of temple ¿rikovils

of Kerala are innovative additions to the body of knowledge

in temple v¡stu. (f) The study shall be useful to the students,

teachers researchers and practitioners on temple v¡stu.

1.5 Conceptual Frame work

The research is directed towards the critical study of

structural spaces, and built forms of Kerala temple ¿rikovils

with special references to apsidal forms. The literature survey

revealed several plan shapes, forms and artifacts. The spaces

in three dimensions are described in texts ranging from one to

sixteen storeys. The Kerala temple ¿rikovils built did not 7 exceed three storeys. The mouldings, niches and artifacts, to a large extent, form part of the structural members giving not only architectural beauty but also provide additional strength and stability to the structures. Most of the researches in temple v¡stu are based on the v¡stu texts restricting them to desk research.

It is intended in this study to combine the desk research, field studies and case studies. The secondary data is collected from the published texts available. Primary data are collected from scheduled interviews with experts like tantris, engineers, vastu experts and discussions with priests, artisans and certain knowledgeable persons. Pilot study showed that the response to mailed questionnaire is practically difficult.

Scheduled interviews and nonscheduled discussions, were found feasible. The schedules were prepared and discussed with the experts and modified as part of the pilot study.

Site visits were carried out to various temples at random. Taking measurements of ¿rikovils (outside and inside) was found to be difficult owing to the restrictions imposed by temple authorities. However, measurements of 8 few temples could be taken with the permissions and co- operation of temple authorities. The Kerala temple ¿rikovils, in most of the cases, do not have proper documentation, which make it difficult to get the measurements.

Observations and approximating the measurements are the choices left.

As far as possible, the engineering discussions are made on the v¡stu concepts, canons, and constructions. The concepts, canons and rules are verified with those prescribed in various texts in certain cases.

The temple ¿rikovils built as per Kerala temple v¡stu only are taken up for the study. The st¡nas, tharas, k¡vus, pur¡s, aras, pa½½iyar¡s, etc which have not been built as per temple v¡stu, does not have idol as pratiÀta, doesn't have pr¡k¡ras and pujas on regular basis have been omitted from the scope of temples.

Endeavour is made to follow appropriate steps of the research methodology in this study i.e., Veekshan- nireekshana-parikshana-manovisakalana-tatvadar¿ana- 9

granth¡viskarana (viewing, observing-testing-analysing-

deriving valid conclusions and forming book).

1.6 Significance of the study

The study is unique and significant as:-

(a) It is probably a prime effort in researching as an academic

pursuit in temple v¡stu. (b) Research methodology has been

adopted which is seldom followed in such studies.(c)

Engineering discussions provide innovative steps in temple

v¡stu. (d) Simplifications of canons derived from Sanskrit

slokas and their tabulations help in easier references and

studies. (e) The study will be useful for further researches and

studies.

1.7 Scope of the study

The main scope of the study is as:-

(a) Review of literature in general on v¡stu texts. (b) Specific

review of literature pertaining to the topic of the study. (c) An

overview of structural space, shapes and forms of temple

¿rikovils in general.

(d) An overview of structural shapes, spaces and shapes of 10

Kerala temple ¿rikovils. (e) Specific study of ¿rikovils of

apsidal forms in Kerala. (f) Case studies on ¿rikovils of

apsidal forms. (g) Presentation of data, analysis and

interpretations as per data obtained from tantris, v¡stu

experts, engineers and architects, artisans, site visits and

discussions with various persons. (h) Engineering discussions

on the temple v¡stu principles and practices with emphasis on

the sustainability, strength, stability and durability of Kerala

temple ¿rikovils. (i) Findings and conclusion.

1.8 Objectives of the study

The broad objectives of the study are:-

(a) Carryout critical study of the principles, concepts and

canons pertaining to the Kerala temple ¿rikovils with regard

to the structural, spaces and built forms with special reference

to apsidal forms. (b)Carryout field study and relate the

principles, concepts and canons to the ground realities. (c)

Give a beginning to simplification of canons pertaining to

space and forms of Kerala temple ¿rikovils. (d) Carryout

engineering discussions pertaining to the structural spaces

and forms with respect to the durability, stability and 11

sustainability of Kerala temple ¿rikovils. (e) Serve the thesis

for the award of the degree of Ph.D. of the University.

1.9 Methodology

1.9.1 General. The methodology adopted is a combination

of desk, field and case studies. Primary data are

collected through scheduled interviews with those

experts like tantris, v¡stu pandits and practitioners and

engineers. Unscheduled interviews/discussions are

conducted to gather general, peripheral and historical

information with priests, their assistants, temple

employees and old people, artisans and knowledgeable

persons on the subject. The information collected from

unscheduled interviews/discussions also form part of

the primary data. The site visits were carried out to

various temples as part of the case studies and observe

the visible peculiarities/specificity of temple ¿rikovils.

Secondary data are collected through the study of

literature in the form of published books, mainly the

v¡stu texts and books relevant to the topic. 12

1.9.2 Sampling. There are about 24,000 temples built as

per temple v¡stu principles. The small temples like

k¡vu, ara, palliyara, pura, st¡na, etc which do not

confirm to v¡stu principles or temple rites do not have

shrines installed are excluded. Tantris selected at

random and responded gave details of temples in which

they perform the rites. The number came to be... 2837

fairly good number of samples for validation. The

sampling error works out to be 0.80% at 95%

confidence level. The details obtained from v¡stu

experts on temples cover to 3257 temples with

sampling error of 0.75% at 95% confidence level.

1.9.3 Scheduled Interviews. Separate schedules for

interviews are at Appendix A, B, and C for tantris,

v¡stu experts and engineers.

1.9.4 Site visits and Discussions. Carried out visits

to temples at various locations having varieties of

shapes, spaces and forms. Carried out discussions with

temple authorities, ¿¡nthis and other persons and

gathered data to the possible extent. 13

1.9.5 Case Studies. From the information gathered from

the discussions with tantris, few temples having certain

uniqueness were taken up for site visits. A separate

chapter is devoted for case studies of apsidal ¿rikovils.

1.9.6 Statistical Tools. Simple statistical tools are used

to make the study comprehensive and clear. The tools

used are: scheduled interviews, case studies,

tabulations, charts and diagrams and simple

comparisons like averages and percentages.

1.10Limitations of the Study

The scope of the study is immense. It has to be restricted due

to the time and space constraints. Other limitations are:-

(a) Geometrical vastness in the spread of temples in Kerala is

large. Hence the extensive coverage has to be restricted. (b)

Temples having ¿rikovils with deities and built as per v¡stu

principles only have been considered. (c) Hesitation on the

part of the tantris, temple authorities and learned people in

divulging the information and technical and other objection

in taking measurements were major constraints. 14

2. CHAPTERS OF THE THESIS 2.1 Chapters of the thesis

The chapters are as under:-

(a)Chapter 1. Introduction. In this chapter brief background

of the study, review of earlier works, research problems,

importance of the study, conceptual framework,

significance of the study, scope of the study methodology

and limitations are given.

(b)Chapter 2. Review of Literature. The review of literature

has been done under the sub headings of v¡stu related texts

and literature specific to the study. The postulates from the

review of literature have been derived. A total of 89 texts/

books have been reviewed. Literatures specific to the

topic are arranged as per the main elements in tabular

forms.

(c)Chapter 3. In this chapter a brief review of structural

spaces, shapes and forms of built ¿rikovils in general have

been discussed. The synthesis and postulates have been

derived. 15

(d)Chapter 4. In this chapter the structural shapes, spaces and

forms of built ¿rikovils in Kerala have been discussed in

brief. The v¡stu canon are summarised and presented in

tabular form. The postulates have been derived.

(e)Chapter 5. Specific study on the apsidal shaped ¿rikovils

with respect to their shapes, spaces and forms have been

carried out. The inferences are included in this chapter.

(f) Chapter 6. Case studies of 21 apsidal ¿rikovils of Kerala

and the discussion have been included in this chapter.

(g)Chapter 7. The data collected through interviews with

tantris, v¡stu experts, engineers and architects, site visits

and discussions with various authorities and persons are

presented separately, relevant to the study. The data are

analysed and interpretations made using various simple

tools of analysis.

(h)Chapter 8. Engineering discussions on the structural

spaces, shapes and forms of built ¿rikovils are made in this

chapter., specific references to the apsidal forms are

discussed. The stability, sustainability, strength and

durability aspects, seismic measures and materials for 16

constructions are discussed from engineering point of

view. The views expressed by the respondents are also

analysed from engineering point of view and

interpretations included in this chapter.

(i) Chapter 9. The findings derived from each chapter are

summarised in brief in this chapter in general and specific

to apsidal forms.

(j) Chapter 10. The conclusion pertaining to the study is

given in this chapter.

2.2 Bibliography and Appendices. The bibliography of

118 books is given at the end of the chapters. Number of

diagrams, sketches and plates are indexed and included in the

thesis. The Appendices A to C are for the schedules of

interviews with the tantries, v¡stu experts and engineers.

Appendix D pertains to the list of persons interviewed

/discussed with (127 numbers). Annextures are given for

basic calculations. A number of diagrams and plates are

indexed and given in the main thesis. 17 18

3. BRIEF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION

3.1 Chapter wise findings are given in the thesis in the chapter 9.

Conclusion is given in chapter 10. Brief findings and

conclusion are given in subsequent paragraphs.

3.2 Brief Findings

The brief findings are given below:-

(a) V¡stu constructions are done as per proper dimensions

and proportions with the intrinsic rhythm, grammar and

aesthetics. There are wide range of flexibility inbuilt in

v¡stu¿¡stra in the concepts, canons and principles in the

planning, design and construction of temple ¿rikovils.

(b) There are several classifications of temple ¿rikovils

based on plan shapes, sizes, storeys, built forms,

decorations, magnitudes, materials of construction,

interiors and so on.

(c) Temples are associated with worships, scheme of

architecture, development of concepts, knowledge and

sets of skills. 19

(d) The plan shapes of Kerala temple ¿rikovils are limited

to square, rectangular, circular, apsidal, octagonal and

elliptical. The number of storeys are limited to three.

The garbhag¤has are small and are mostly of square in

plan and few as per the shapes of ¿rikovils. AdÅist¡nas

are invariably provided and upapitas are optional.

MukÅamandapas are optional.

(e) Temples were built in Kerala even before Christian era.

The present state of spaces and forms underwent

transformation and evolutions over centuries. Square

¿rikovils account for about 75%, rectangular about 12%

apsidal about 0.5%, circular about 11% and only about

0.5% in other shapes.

(f) The structural spaces both horizontal and vertical and

also forms of ¿rikovils provide the exquisite interiors,

exteriors and decorations, stability, strength,

sustainability and durability. The alank¡ras not only

provide beauty but also serve as partial structural

members providing strength and stability. 20

(g) Knowledge about apsidal shapes and forms were

known for more than 2000 years. Most of the apsidal

¿rikovils withstood for centuries. The apsidal ¿rikovils

have several peculiarities in their plan shapes, spaces

and forms. Most of the garbhag¤has are of apsidal

shapes. The axial symmetry is only about Y axis. Other

two axes X and Z are asymmetrical. The ground plan

is a square with half circle at the back. In the vertical

spaces the half portion is half cylindrical with half

circular cone on top. Most of the ¿rikovils have

mukhama¸dapas either square or nearly square in plans.

There are one, two or three stupis. The decorations are

progressive with the sizes of ¿rikovils.

(h) Case studies of 21 apsidal ¿rikovils confirmed the

peculiarities given above. Each and every temple has

certain uniqueness obtained through variations in the

structural spaces, forms and decorations. The varieties

are evident from the ground plan prepared based on

case studies. 21

(i) Data collected through interviews with tantris, v¡stu

experts, engineers and knowledgeable people (130

persons) and analysed give interesting findings as:-

(i) The accurate designs, adherence to v¡stu concepts,

peculiar plan shapes and spaces, gradual and careful

constructions, proper proportioning, use of strong

materials, special structure, higher factors of safety,

timely repairs, strong foundations and walls etc

contribute towards the structural stability, sustenance,

strength and durability of ¿rikovils. (ii) There is need to

integrate the temple v¡stu with modern technology,

methodology and management in the planning, design,

construction and maintenance of temple ¿rikovils. (iii)

There is need for documenting the structural details of

¿rikovils. There is need to train and refresh the skills of

artisans. There is need to unify the measurement

system. (iv) There are broader views on planning and

designs not only based on the textural canons and

principles but also based on the local practices, guru

upade¿a, logics, conveniences, beauty and perceptions 22

of owners and stapatis. (v) Apsidal ¿rikovils represent

combination of the Nagara and Ve¿ara traditions. The

peculiarities were confirmed on site visits, case studies

and discussions.

(j) The engineering discussions under the headings of

structural spaces, structural forms, materials of

construction, factors contributing towards sustainability

and durability, structural characteristics of apsidal

¿rikovils and strengthening measures against seismic

effects bring out engineering visions and foresights of

ancient v¡stu experts. The concepts coincide with

modern engineering at macro levels.

(k) The system process, integration of elements, pre

engineering in the planning, design and construction

require special mention. However, integration with

modern technologies and methodologies and unified

approach will improve the accuracy, speed and

economy. There are wide scopes for improvements in

these fields.

3.3 Brief Conclusion 23

The brief conclusion is given in subsequent paragraphs.

The thesis entitled "A critical study of structural spaces and built forms of Kerala Temple ¿rikovils with special references to apsidal forms" is probably the first one in the field.

Temples were built in Kerala even before the Christian era. The built forms of ¿rikovils of Kerala had undergone series of evolutions through centuries. The authors of text books on temple architecture from 15th century A.D referred to the previous works, compiled, modified and adopted the concepts, canons, principles and practices suitable to the region from socio-cultural, climatic, geographical and forms of worship considerations.

Kerala temple ¿rikovils differ from those in other regions of India in several ways. The ground plan shapes of

Kerala ¿rikovils are restricted to few regular shapes. Most of the ¿rikovils are square, few of them are rectangular and circular, very few apsidal and very rarely polygonal (mainly octagonal and oval) shapes. The garbhag¤has where the main deities are installed are small as the entry into it is 24 restricted. The Kerala ¿rikovils are mostly single storeyed, rarely two storeyed and very rarely three storeyed. There is only one ¿ikhara on the ¿rikovil in Kerala. The roof structure is mostly of sloping special structure roofed with tiles or copper plates. Recently concrete roof is being adopted. The mouldings, niches and alank¡ras are simple, progressive and unique. Stupis are provided on the k£tas on the roofs in most of the ¿rikovils.

The principles and canons are strict in the planning, design and construction of temple ¿rikovils, yet have flexibility for adoption. Every element is defined by proper measurements and proportions integrated into the whole system. The measurements provide the grammar, the proportions the rhythm and the decorations the elegance and aesthetics. The varieties in spaces, forms and decorations provide uniqueness to each ¿rikovil.

The review of literature has been done under the sub heads of basic texts, modern texts and specific to the topic.

Eighty-nine books are reviewed. The main events / elements are listed, the main contents given in brief and essential 25 references are provided. The main references are based on

Tantrasamuccaya (áilpabh¡ga). There are variations / additions in other texts. The texts give the cannons and concepts in ¿loka form. Effort is made to tabulate the contents in very brief and provide various references appropriate to the sub groups for easier understanding, references and further studies.

The ¿rikovil, the pr¡s¡da has unique interior and exterior. The main shrine is installed in garbhag¤ha inside the ¿rikovil. There are several classifications of ¿rikovils given in various texts based on shapes, spaces, forms, decorations, position of the diety, location, measurements, combinations of various spaces and forms and materials used for construction. The structural spaces considered in this study include the horizontal and vertical spaces. The horizontal spaces include the plan shapes, sizes and interior arrangements. The vertical spaces include the three dimensional spaces provided by the heights and number of storeys. The overall forms are dictated by the shapes, spaces, elevations, mouldings, niches, alank¡ras, artifacts. 26

Apsidal forms and the geometry were known to Indians even before 2000 years. The shape, space and form are different from other regular shaped ¿rikovils in the case of apsidal ¿rikovils. Literature regarding the planning, design and construction of apsidal ¿rikovils are limited. The general features, peculiarities and analysis from the angles of structural spaces, forms and decorations of apsidal ¿rikovils are included in this study, which would be useful for future references and studies. Out of 28 apsidal ¿rikovils came to be known, 21 ¿rikovils were taken up for case studies. The ground plans of these ¿rikovils and photographs of most of these shall serve as useful documentation. The discussions on the case studies under the groupings of structural spaces, forms, decorations and materials of constructions give insight into the details of these apsidal ¿rikovils. The main differences of apsidal ¿rikovils from other regular shaped

¿rikovils are in the plan shape, interior and exterior spaces- the garbhag¤has, antar¡las, mukhamandapas- the exterior elevations and the number of k£tas and stupis and the like, 27 aspect ratio, axes of symmetries, degrees of difficulties in the construction and slight variations in the decorations.

The data collected from published works regarding the antiquity, shapes and spaces account for about 7200 ¿rikovils.

The data collected from tantries account for 2837 ¿rikovils and that from v¡stu experts account for 3251 ¿rikovils. There may be overlaps. However, the weighted averages provide reasonably reliable results. Discussions were held with tantris, v¡stu experts, engineers, stapatis, ¿ilpins, pujakas, temple authorities and knowledgeable persons who could provide valuable information. The main reasons for the long and sustained life of ¿rikovils expressed by the tantris, v¡stu experts and engineers are more or less in agreement. Most of them are in agreement for the adoptions of modern technologies, methodologies and management with in the concepts of temple v¡stu. The influences of various styles of other regions are evident in Kerala ¿rikovils though the tantris and v¡stu experts feel the styles purely unique to

Kerala. 28

The strong needs for unification of scales, unification of v¡stu cannons and principles with modern engineering, documentation of temple ¿rikovils by authorised bodies, studies on the structural and engineering aspects of ¿rikovils with the aim of attaining economy of resources, time and effort emerged through the study.

The engineering discussions have paved the way to new dimensions in the approach to the study. The factors contributing to the sustainability, stability, strength and durability of temple ¿rikovils have been discussed with fresh approach. The suitability of the shapes, spaces, forms and strengthening measures of ¿rikovils to sustain the seismic effects are highlighted. The ancient science of building temple ¿rikovils very closely agree with the modern engineering and vice versa in this aspect.

The diversities created through the variations in the structural spaces, forms and decorations to create uniqueness have been high lighted with examples.

The study being probably a pioneering effort has its own uniqueness, fresh out look and innovative ideas. The 29 study would be helpful to those who intend to do researches / studies in such or similar topics. It would also be useful to those who are interested in such studies, may be v¡stu students, teachers, engineers, architects and stapatis. The study could contribute to the body of knowledge in the structural spaces and forms of Kerala ¿rikovils in general and specially in the case of apsidal ¿rikovils.

The study may be taken as the beginning of fresh approach to the study of Kerala temple ¿rikovils with respect to their structural spaces and forms. It has become evident that further studies are required on such topics.