UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI Date:___________________ I, _________________________________________________________, hereby submit this work as part of the requirements for the degree of: in: It is entitled: This work and its defense approved by: Chair: _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ The Independence/Freedom and Justice Arch in Ghana: An Uncontested Embodiment of Disparate Sentiments—“National Identity” and “Freedom” A thesis submitted to Division of Research and Advanced Studies of the University of Cincinnati In partial Fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE In the School of Architecture and Interior Design of the College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning 2008 by Aditei Puplampu Bachelor of Architecture, Drury University, 2005 Committee Chair: Nnamdi Elleh, PhD Committee Members: John E. Hancock Abstract The Independence/Freedom and Justice Arch in Ghana: An Uncontested Embodiment of Disparate Sentiments—“National Identity” and “Freedom” Among its numerous roles in the pre-independent era, social historians agree that imported architecture in colonial African landscapes “…provided forms for the specific purpose of subverting the cultures of colonized subjects, and created centers for domesticating colonial subjects…”1 Conversely, in the mid to late twentieth century (post-independent era), “…architecture was [also] conceptualized as a tool for formulating national identity and unity, and as a template for structuring national development policies.”2 Thus, just as architectural and spatial organizational strategies were used to segregate, regulate, and ultimately facilitate colonialism, they were also employed as an attempt to desegregate, deregulate, and as a counter measure to the effects of colonialism. This paper explores the cruel ironies as well as the propagation of fierce contradictions in Ghana, focusing on the nation’s Independence Arch, a curious rendition of the Roman triumphal arch, installed in the celebration of Ghana’s victory over British colonialists. Although the seemingly baseless adaptation of an abstracted and idealized culture has been considered, and may be understood as an effective and calculated strategy to unify the varied cultural groups in an emerging nation of Ghana, I propose that the Independence Arch also reinstitutes, perpetuates, and epitomizes the very ideologies it seeks to defy in its stance. This research draws on a wealth of diverse sources: histories of the architectural strategies of the colonizer and the colonized (British Empire and Ghana), pre-and post- independence maps of Accra (the capital city), archival records of the inception and inauguration 1 Nnamdi Elleh “Architecture and Nationalism in Africa,” The Short Century: Independence and Liberation Movements in Africa 1945-1994) ed. Okwui Enwezor (Munich; New York: Prestel, 2001), p. 235. 2 Ibid. iii of the monument, architectural treatises, and contemporary accounts of the use and meanings of the monument. I explore the design, evolution, sociopolitical functions, semiotics and interpretations of the Independence Arch, including the opposing views of localism and internationalism. The conception and evolution of the monument reveals the fierce contradictions associated with the conceptualization and utilization of architecture—the very instrument and language of colonizers—as an ideal mechanism for the infusion of cultural nationalism. It thus provides insight into the grave dangers inherent in the pursuit of two radically divorced ideals—a legitimate national identity,3 and the claim to legitimacy and self-determination. 3 “Identity” is used here to mean a self distinct from that which was constructed and imposed by colonizers. iv Acknowledgements I have managed under some odds to complete this thesis because I have been properly mentored, but also well supported by several loving and selfless people. It seems especially apt then that I express my heartiest appreciation to those who have helped in one way or another, to guide, inspire and encourage me through this challenging but nevertheless, fulfilling adventure. First and foremost, none of this would have been possible without the strength, wisdom, and loving hand of God, to whom all praise is due. I am most grateful to my professors at the College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning (DAAP) of the University of Cincinnati, who provided me with the compass to navigate the complex topos of which this thesis is situated, and all that is implicated within it. I would like to especially express my gratitude to the members of my thesis committee, Dr. Nnamdi Elleh, and Professor John E. Hancock for their invaluable suggestions throughout the course of this project. Though the afore-mentioned professors directly influenced the positive outcome of this work, others like Dr. David Saile, Dr. Rebecca Williamson, James Bradford, and Dr. Aarati Kanekar, also helped, even if remotely, in shaping and moving this thesis along. I owe a bundle of special thanks to Dr. Don-Arthur for pointing me to valuable sources during the research process, and for making the time to have a dialogue about issues surrounding the Independence Arch even when hard pressed for time. I also appreciate the support of my colleagues: Kenneth French, Seunghan Park, Mitchell Sipus, Juliana Zanotto, Priyanka Koul, Lindsey Guinther, Aparna Madhavan, Diana Leakas, Dionisius Dwityabaswara, Florentina, Anna Botez, Daniel Madryga, Christina Glassgow, v Eleanor Luken, Kingkini Roy, and Randall Corral. I am thankful to the lot for enabling and facilitating engaging discussions which informed every step of this endeavor. Without a doubt, none of this would have been possible without the unbridled support of my loving family. To my dad, Dr. George Buerte Puplampu, who searched and produced vital information each time I reached a dead end, your tireless efforts and consistent support are thoroughly appreciated. I am immensely grateful to my mother Ms. Betty Djabatey, and my brothers, Adi and Adinor Puplampu, for the continuous words of encouragement. I would like to thank Mr. Adrian Kobby Adams for providing some of the images used in this work, and Jeff and Wendy Silva for tolerating and permitting my work to be the center of many conversations. Mr. Oswyn Johnson and Sarah Stephens, I thank you for editing and proof- reading this work on such short. It is true that those closest to you are the ones who bear the inconveniences. In that vein, I would finally like to acknowledge Ms. Elizabeth Ghunney. Without you, this project would have been an even more taxing venture than it has been. I thank you for your patience, and for dedicating countless but scarce hours to this work. I am also thankful to you for allowing my work to be a temporary wedge between us. To you, I am deeply indebted and immensely grateful. vi Table of Contents Abstract iii-iv Acknowledgements v-vi Table of Contents vii List of Illustrations viii Introduction: A Ghanaian Emblem Rooted in the Ruins of Colonialism 01-13 Chapter I: Historical Background; the Makings of a National Monument 14-23 Chapter II: Monument as propaganda device in Ghana 24-39 Chapter III: Disparity in the Ideologies Proclaimed and Represented 40-56 Chapter IV: Dr. Kwame Nkrumah: Patriarch and Patron 57-70 Chapter V: Semiology, Encoding, Decoding, and the Production of Meaning 71-84 Conclusion 85-93 Bibliography 94-100 vii List of Illustrations Fig. 1. Front view of the Independence Arch looking West Fig. 2. View of the Independence Arch looking North-West Fig. 3. News Paper clipping showing a jubilant crowd and monument Fig. 4. Front (obverse) side of newly released ten cedis banknote Fig. 5. Back (reverse) side of the old ten cedis currency note Fig. 6. Back (reverse) side of old ten thousand cedis currency note Fig. 7. Back (reverse) side of twenty thousand cedis currency note Fig. 8. Front (obverse) side of the old two thousand cedis note Fig. 9. Front side of one of the Golden Jubilee postcard Fig. 10. “The National Monument”, a commemorative postage stamp Fig. 11. Ghanaian National Coat-of-arms/ Crest Fig. 12. Front (obverse) side of the newly released fifty cedis note Fig. 13. Arch of Septimus Severus Fig. 14. Front (obverse) side of the newly released five cedis note Fig. 15. Front (obverse) of the 100 French francs banknote. Fig. 16. Front (obverse) of the 20 Moroccan dirhams banknote Fig. 17. Kwame Nkumah and his compatriots dressed in Batakali Fig. 18. Front view of the Independence Arch looking west. Fig. 19. Front view of the Abraham Lincoln Memorial Fig. 20. View of the Independence Arch looking North-West Fig. 21. The Basic Semiological Triangle Fig. 22. Semiological Triangle (Independence Arch) Fig. 23. Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, Germany viii Introduction: A Ghanaian Emblem Rooted in the Ruins of Colonialism. “They cannot represent themselves; they must be represented.” “Men make their own history, but they do not make it as they please; they do not make it under self-selected circumstances, but under circumstances existing already, given and transmitted from the past.” --Karl Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte “Extricating a formerly colonized nation from colonial rule to a nation-state, generally entails the establishment of a distinct and unified national identity.” --Joshua B. Forrest “Ghana was born at midnight. The Union Jack was lowered at the National Assembly building in Accra