UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI Date:___________________ I, _________________________________________________________, hereby submit this work as part of the requirements for the degree of: in: It is entitled: This work and its defense approved by: Chair: _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ Nationalism and Modernization A Comparative Case Study of Scots and Kurds A Dissertation Submitted to The Division of Research and Advanced Studies of the University of Cincinnati In partial fulfillment for the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D.) in the Department of Political Science in the McMicken College of Arts and Sciences 2008 By Ahmet Tolga Turker B.A. Bilkent University 1998 M.A. Eastern Illinois University 2000 M.A. University of Cincinnati 2003 Committee Chair: Dr. Joel D. Wolfe Abstract This dissertation explores the links between modernization and nationalism, and the question of why economic, political and socio-cultural processes of modernization have not led to the elimination of separatist nationalist movements. It tests hypotheses concerning modernization and nationalism on two prominent cases: the Scottish and Kurdish separatist movements in the United Kingdom and Turkey. Analyzing the relationship between economic modernization and nationalism, the economic modernization account is supported in both the Scottish and Kurdish cases for the period until the 1960s. However, it is discredited and found reductionist in the latter part of the twentieth century. Analyzing arguments that political modernization reduces separatist nationalism, this study found support for the political modernist account in both cases until the 1960s. However, the political modernist accounts failed to give a satisfactory picture of why Scottish and Kurdish nationalisms took a separatist turn since the 1960s. Finally, analyzing the socio-cultural links between modernization and nationalism, this project finds that these socio-cultural arguments are supported in the period prior to the 1960s in both cases. Although a significant causality between socio-cultural factors and nationalism could not established for the period after 1960, this study concludes that socio-cultural modernization tends to create conflict rather than reconcile differences in the period since the 1960s. In light of these findings, this study criticizes modernist accounts. It suggests that, along the lines of ethno-symbolist perspective, while nationalism is modern, it is constructed around a particular ethnic tradition that modern nations have to be explained and “contextualized” with reference to their ethnic forbearers . Accordingly, the following suggestions are made: first, nationalism should be iii examined in a larger time span, which will cover pre- modern attachments. Second, notions such as re-discovery and re-construction of the ethnic past should replace invention and imagination. Third, nationalism is not a history-specific and transitory force. Finally, modernity’s accelerated dynamism generates new nationalisms. iv Copyright @ 2008 A. Tolga Turker v Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the sources of intellectual, financial and moral support for my doctoral studies, which made this project possible. Professor Joel Wolfe supervised my doctoral thesis with enthusiasm and congeniality. His enduring support in pursuing this project and his considerable scholarship on British politics has made me look forward for our discussion sessions. Professor Dinshaw Mistry was a constant source of encouragement and motivated me to prioritize this project over other responsibilities when I was in need most. He never gave up reminding me the fact that this doctoral thesis had to be finished and provided me with organizational tools to do so. Professor Laura Jenkins provided enthusiastic support for my work, giving much needed suggestions for improving the dissertation. I hope other doctoral students will be as fortunate as I was in terms of a coherent and supportive dissertation committee. I acknowledge the financial support from the Department of Political Science and Charles Phelps Taft Research Center at the University of Cincinnati during my graduate studies. I would like to thank my parents who remained a great source of inspiration and support of my adventures. Finally I would like to thank my wife, Lisa, for her love and encouragement. Without her, I would not have relish life so much in the process of writing this dissertation. I was an undergraduate when my first nephew; Canberk was born. Naïvely, at the time, I planned to be part of his life. Then I came to the US to pursue my graduate studies and I not only ended up failing to see him grow up but also missed the birth of two more nephews; Burc and Tunc, and a beautiful niece; Elif. I completed this project at the expense of not being part of their lives. For that reason I dedicate this dissertation to them and ask for their understanding. Needless to say, I, alone, am responsible for any shortcomings or errors in this work. 2 Table of Contents List of Tables .................................................................................................................. 5 Chapter 1. Introduction ................................................................................................... 7 The Argument ................................................................................................................. 9 Chapter 2: Theory, Case Selection, and Methodology ..................................................... 24 The Study of Nationalism ............................................................................................. 24 Debates on Nationalism ............................................................................................ 25 What is Nationalism?................................................................................................ 27 Perspectives on how to study nationalism ................................................................ 33 Nationalism and Modernization................................................................................ 40 The Hypotheses............................................................................................................. 43 Modernization subverts separatist nationalism......................................................... 45 Observable implications............................................................................................ 48 Modernization reinforces separatist nationalism ...................................................... 49 Economic Modernization reduces separatist nationalism (H1) ................................ 52 Observable Implications: .......................................................................................... 53 Economic modernization fosters separatist nationalism (H1’)................................. 54 Political modernization reduces separatist nationalism (H2).................................... 56 Observable Implications: .......................................................................................... 58 Political modernization fosters separatist nationalism (H2’).................................... 59 Modernizing socio-cultural conditions reduces separatist nationalism (H3)............ 61 Observable Implications: .......................................................................................... 63 Modernizing social and cultural conditions promotes separatist nationalism (H3’) 63 A Note on the Effects of Modernization....................................................................... 65 Measurement................................................................................................................. 66 Nationalism............................................................................................................... 67 Elements of Modernization:...................................................................................... 68 Chapter 3: Scottish nationalism and modernization ......................................................... 72 A Note on European Nationalism and Scotland ........................................................... 74 Review of Scottish Nationalism.................................................................................... 75 I. Scottish Nationalism from the Treaty of Union until post- World War II ............ 75 II. Political Nationalism in Scotland Since 1960s .................................................... 80 III. Scottish National Identity Since 1960s............................................................... 90 Modernization and Scottish Nationalism...................................................................... 94 I- Economic modernization: ..................................................................................... 95 II. Political Modernization:..................................................................................... 106 III- Socio-cultural Modernization:.......................................................................... 123 Chapter 4: Modernization and Kurdish Nationalism...................................................... 138 Review of Kurdish Identity and Nationalism ............................................................. 139 I- The Kurds and the evolution of Kurdish Identity ............................................... 139 II- The Kurds in the Ottoman Empire (16 th – late