Located at Central European University in Budapest, the Center for EU Enlargement Studies is dedicated to making recent and upcoming enlargements work, by contributing to the debate on the future of the EU and by exploring the results and lessons of previous EU enlargements. Research LIBYA AND THE EU activities, however, are not limited only to the analysis of previous enlargements, but also to the potential effects that a wider extension of the EU’s sphere of influence may Kinga Tibori Szabó have on bordering regions. Libya presents both opportunities and risks as a partner to the EU. It possesses great oil reserves and could act as a buffer zone in securing the external border of the EU. However, its notorious human rights violations and disrespect for the rule of law make the participation of the country in the ENP difficult. “…The EU expects Libya to formally accept the Barcelona Declaration, which is the precondition for the start of negotiations over an Association Agreement with the EU.…Although keen on establishing formalized economic relations, when it comes to political cooperation, Libya is more in favor of informal or loose ties with the European Union. Keeping this in mind, there are certain actions that the EU needs to undertake in the near future for improving its relations with Libya…” CENTER FOR EU ENLARGEMENT STUDIES CENTRAL EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY Nádor u. 9. H-1051, Budapest Tel: +36-1-327-3000 ext. 2391 Fax: +36-1-328-3444 e-mail: [email protected] www.ceu.hu/cens 7/06 © Central European University All rights reserved. No part of this paper may be reproduced in any form without the permission of the Center for EU Enlargement Studies. The opinions reflected and presented in this paper are the author’s own and do not necessarily reflect those of the Center for EU Enlargement Studies, Central European University. Editor: Péter Balázs, Director, Center for EU Enlargement Studies ISBN 963 87245 6 0 CENTER FOR EU ENLARGEMENT STUDIES CENTRAL EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY Nádor u. 9. H-1051, Budapest Tel: +36-1-327-3000 ext. 2391 Fax: +36-1-328-3444 e-mail: [email protected] www.ceu.hu/cens Contents Executive Summary 5 1. Libya and the EU – History and Importance of Relations 6 1.1. Before Independence 6 1.2. The Libyan Monarchy 9 1.3. Qaddafi and Isolated Libya 10 1.4. Qaddafi’s New Approach 14 1.5. Why Is Libya Important for the EU? 15 2. How to Deal with Libya – Critique of Policy Options 17 2.1. The Benghazi HIV epidemic 20 2.2. Putting an End to Illegal Immigration 21 2.3. The Barcelona Process & European Neighbourhood Policy 22 3. Policy Recommendations 26 Bibliography 28 Appendix 1: Libya Country Profile 30 Appendix 2: Map of Libya 33 3 KINGA TIBORI SZABÓ CENS would like to thank Lóránt Balla of the Hungarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Erzsébet N. Rózsa of the Teleki László Institute, Budapest and Magda Katona for their valuable insights and critical remarks on the draft paper. Kinga Tibori Szabó was born in Romania. She graduated at Babes-Bolyai University, Romania and Utrecht University, the Netherlands. Currently she is a PhD student at the Department of International Relations and European Studies of Central European University, Budapest. Her research topics include international legal norms, international security and European foreign policy. 4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The purpose of this paper is to discuss the conditions and significance of the recent changes in Libyan foreign policy towards the Western world and espe- cially towards the European Union, and to relate them to the already existent or planned EU policies regarding Libya. In order to do that, the present paper will first offer a short historical review of Libya (from ancient times to the 21st century). On the basis of this review, it will identify the most important as- pects of the Libya-EU relationship and will discuss the policy options available for furthering cooperations and for tackling the remaining difficulties. Finally, the paper will offer a set of recommendations that summarize the examined policy options and will highlight the opportunity, feasibility and necessary time span for such endeavors. 5 1. Libya AND THE EU – History AND Importance OF Relations Libya is situated in Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, and neighboring Egypt, Sudan, Chad, Nigeria, Algeria and Tunisia.1 It is a member of the Arab Maghreb Union2 and a founding member of the African Union.3 For the past few decades, it has been seen by Western powers as a “geopolitical outlaw of the Mediterranean.”4 However, after a long period of difficult relations with the US and Western European states, since 2003, Libya has taken important steps in order to nor- malize these relations, especially with the European Union (EU). The purpose of this paper is to discuss the background and significance of these changes in Libyan foreign policy and to relate them to the already exis- tent or planned EU policies that are related to this topic. In order to do that, the paper will first offer a short historical review of Libya. On the basis of this review, it will identify the most important aspects of the Libya-EU relation- ship and will discuss the policy options available for furthering cooperations and for tackling the remaining difficulties. Finally, the paper will offer a set of recommendations that summarize the examined policy options and will high- light the opportunity, feasibility and necessary time span for such endeavors. 1.1. Before Independence The aim of this section is to offer a very basic overview of Libyan history from the first relevant accounts until the proclamation of the independent Libyan state. A brief description of the major historical events will follow. It is impor- 1 For more factual information on Libya, see Appendix 1. 2 The Arab Maghreb Union is a Pan-Arab agreement concluded in 1989 by Algeria, Libya, Mau- ritania, Morocco and Tunisia, with the purpose of achieving economic and political union in Northern Africa. For more information visit: http://www.maghrebarabe.org/ 3 The African Union is a federation consisting of 53 African member states that was founded in July 2002 in South Africa. For more information please visit http://www.africa-union.org/ 4 Raymond, Rogue Regime, 1998: 122. 6 LIBYA AND THE EUROPEAN UNION tant to note that tracing Libyan history is a very difficult and complex task and is not the purpose of this article.5 Nevertheless, a short portrayal of the major events that took place before the independence of Libya is useful in order to provide a basic background picture of the evolution of this region. Libya – as we know it today – is composed of three provinces: Tripolitania in the North-West, Cyrenaica in the East and Fezzan in the South. The name “Libya” originally belonged to a Berber tribe and was subsequently used by the ancient Greeks for all of North Africa (with the exception of Egypt). The name was revived by Italy in 1934 when it was adopted as the official -de nomination of the new Italian colony, comprised of the three aforementioned provinces.6 The oldest accounts of the provinces are connected to Phoenician colo- nies established in the first half of the last millennium BCE. At that time, the most important Phoenician colonies on the territory were Leptis, Oia and Sa- brata. In the 6th century BCE, the ports on the Libyan coast were conquered by Carthage. In 107 BCE, North-western Libya was conquered by Rome; approximately thirty years later the province of Cyrenaica fell under Ro- man control as well. Between the 5th and 12th century AD, the three Libyan provinces have been invaded by Vandals, Arabs and Normans. From the 16th century onwards the three provinces have been under actual or nominal Ot- toman control. In 1551 Tripolitania became a vassal state under the Ottoman Empire, whereas Fezzan came under nominal Ottoman control only in 1842. Cyrenaica fell under nominal Ottoman suzerainty in the 15th century, but it became subject of actual Ottoman control only in the 18th century. Although under Ottoman power, the local/tribal rule remained strong in all the three provinces. The 19th century saw the rise of an increasingly powerful religious movement, the Sufist Sanusi order7 that had its leaders in Cyrenaica. 5 The review of Libyan history until the factual end of the Italian occupation has been adapted from the country-study of the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress: Country Studies/Area Handbook Series. 6 Ibid. 7 The Sanusi is a Sufist order of great importance in Libya. The order was founded by Sidi Muhammad ibn Ali as-Sanusi in 1843 in Cyrenaica. The Sanusi order is noted mostly for its missionary activities among non-Muslim peoples in Sahara and Central Africa, as well as for its involvement in Libyan politics. Early on, they were able to establish strong local governance. The Ottomans exempted the order from taxation, and allowed it to tax its supporters. Early in the 20th century, the head of the Sanusi at that time, and the grandson of Muhammad ibn Ali, Idris, became the first, and only, king of Libya (his reign will be discussed below). 7 KINGA TIBORI SZABÓ In 1911, Italy invaded Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. One year later, the Ot- toman sultan conceded all the three provinces to the Italians by signing the Treaty of Lausanne. Tripolitania was largely under factual Italian control by 1914, but both Cyrenaica and Fezzan were home to rebellions led by the Sanusi order. Resistance intensified after the accession to power in Italy of Benito Mussolini.