© 2009 Maurice J. Hobson THE DAWNING OF THE BLACK NEW SOUTH: A GEO-POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL HISTORY OF BLACK ATLANTA, GEORGIA, 1966 - 1996 BY MAURICE J. HOBSON DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History in the Graduate College of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2009 Urbana, Illinois Doctoral Committee: Professor James Anderson, Chair Professor David Roediger, Co-Chair Professor Leon Dash Assistant Professor Clarence Lang Associate Professor Christopher Span ABSTRACT This dissertation seeks to provide an intraracial narrative history of African American politics and class tensions in Atlanta, Georgia from 1966, the year when black power movement forces emerged and helped to elect Maynard H. Jackson as Atlanta’s mayor to the 1996 Centennial Olympiad. Also, this study is an ambitious attempt to cultivate a newly emerging field called Black New South Studies, which, in many ways, parallels the field of African American Studies. Its research interests focus on the experiences of African Americans in the South with national and international implications as seen through a post-Civil Rights context. Grounded in primary sources, including extended interviews with black Atlantans and analyses of popular culture texts, this study grapples with the historiography of the new African American Urban History, African American Folk Culture and Resistance, and Hip Hop by charting various manifestations seen through the city’s rise from regional center to global commercial city. Indeed, Atlanta is a City representing the highest educational, political, and economic aspirations and achievements of African Americans over the past century and yet home to some of the roughest and most destitute black ghettos in the South and nation. As such it represents various interconnections and interactions between diverse black populations within the urban New South. The city’s old and powerful black middle class, along with a powerful white business elite, have long shaped New South politics. Yet in the latter half of the Twentieth Century, the majority of Atlanta’s black communities remained in abject poverty and gave way to some of the harshest socio-economic conditions in America at the behest of black city administrators. ii An important aspect of this dissertation rejects Atlanta’s “black Mecca” status. In doing so, a major dimension of this particular transformation is the role of Hip Hop culture as a counter-narrative to the evolution of Atlanta as a world-class commercial center. Specifically, the Dirty South Hip Hop Movement, manifested in such groups as OutKast and Goodie Mob, cultivated a counter movement that portrayed the experiences of the poor and homeless in Atlanta’s black ghettoes as the underbelly of Atlanta’s rise to world fame and fortune. The music and lyrics demonstrate the inherent tensions within Atlanta’s black community as the city rose to newly found prestige and status provided these artists. iii To the late Timothy T. Stewart, my pacesetter whose standard of excellence in my early life set a course a path of success. To the late Dr. William L. Lester, a brilliant man who saw my quixotic ambition and gave it direction. To the late Eva Grace Forbes, whose gift of immeasurable spirit and fortitude gave way to the accomplishment of life’s goals. And to my ancestors, descendents, and to all of those voices that have been silenced; use me as your vessel so the world can behold your message. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author of this dissertation would like to honor the Great King and Creator, God Almighty and His son Jesus Christ through whose sacrifice we are offered salvation, eternal life and the fruits of the Spirit. These fruits were critical and necessary for this journey. I would like to thank my wife and the Queen of my Soul, Cynthia Hobson, who not only offered encouragement, support and patience, but helped a great deal in writing this dissertation. I cannot thank you enough. I would like to thank my parents Marvin & Joy Hobson for their wisdom, guidance, and patience in my growth and development as a person. Marvin, you are a man of principles, integrity, and you taught me to do what is right. These are rare qualities in this day and age. Joy, not only have you been a mother, but my personal prayer warrior who taught me how to pray and the power of prayer. Thank you. I would like thank my siblings Timothy, Gernerique, Christi, Vince and Victoria for their constant encouragement and friendship. Thank you to my other mother, Virda Lester for your continued support, encouragement and friendship. I would like to thank my dissertation committee of Dr. David Roediger, Professor Leon Dash, and Dr. Clarence Lang for their time, patience, support and guidance. Special thanks to my Dissertation Chair, Dr. James D. Anderson and Dr. Christopher Span, whose steadfast patience and kindness not only helped to develop me as a scholar and a historian, but provided much needed entertainment and amusement. In them I have found mentors, friends, and brothers. If I am able to be half as brilliant and charitable as these gentlemen, then I will have done well. I am grateful for their guidance and supervision in the completion of this work. I would like to thank the staffs in the History and Educational Policy Studies Departments. A special thanks to Judy Patterson, Tom Bedwell, Elaine Sampson, Jenna v Pfoff and Linda Meccoli in Educational Policy Studies. Your abilities to get things done are greatly appreciated. Thank you to the University of Illinois’ Graduate College and the Educational Equity Programs for their continued funding, support and opportunities. A special thanks to Ave Alvarado and Victor Perez, whose encouragement, employment and funding kept me on track throughout this journey. A special thanks to the late Iolantha Spencer and the Tuskegee University Family for your support. Thank you to the UNCF/Andrew W. Mellon Fellowship Program and Omega Psi Phi Fraternity for your financial support. I am grateful to Professors Reginald Alston and William Trent who provided office space and support throughout this process. I would like to thank my colleagues Karlos Hill, Lessie Tate, and Nicholas Gaffney for sharing your knowledge, friendship, help, and encouragement. I would like to thank the staffs in the Archives Divisions of the Robert W. Woodruff Library at the University of Illinois History and Newspaper Library; Atlanta University Center; Auburn Avenue Research Library; and the Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Book Library at Emory University. A special thanks to Thomas Weissinger, Andrea Jackson, Karen Jefferson, Meredith Evans-Raiford, Kiyan Shabazz Skiffer, Francine Henderson, Janice Sikes Rogers, Kerrie Cotten Williams, Abayomi Manrique, Anita Martin, Okezie Amalaha, Felicia Render, Carmelita Pickett and Kathy Shoemaker. During my stay in Atlanta, your assistance was priceless. Also, I would like to thank Attorney and Mrs. Kimani King for opening their home to me during my stay in Atlanta. Kimani, you don’t know how our conversations about Atlanta helped to contextualize this dissertation. It was greatly appreciated. Special thanks to William Ledman, Janice White Sikes Rogers, Joseph E. Thompson, Trashinda Wright, Karl Barnes, Kerrie Cotten Williams and Jerry Roberts for telling me your stories experience. Also, thanks to Robert Guice for his audio expertise in recording the interviews and Monica Murphy for her transcription of the interviews. A special thanks to the vi Forbes, Branson, Kellum and Lester families for their prayers and support. To my friend Rodrick Barge and to Glenn Coleman, Keith Roland, Mikki Johnson, Ryan Vann, Joseph James, Joseph T. Williams and the rest of the Omega Psi Phi Fraternity, thank you for your continued friendship. Lastly, thank you Selma, Alabama, for it was you that gave me a heart and love for people. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS……………………………………………………………..x INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1 Historiography ......................................................................................... 5 New African American Urban Historiography........................................ 5 Historiography of African American Folk Culture and Resistance......... 8 Historiography of Hip Hop .................................................................... 12 PROLOGUE: A BRIEF HISTORY OF BLACK ATLANTA BEFORE 1966............... 18 Contending New Souths ........................................................................ 19 Chapter ONE CONTENDING VISIONS OF A BLACK NEW SOUTHS AND THE BUILDING OF BLACK ATLANTA, 1865-1968........................................................................38 The Quest for Black Education ...............................................................38 John Hope, Booker T. Washington, and Black Atlanta ......................... 45 Black Education and its Influence on Atlanta’s Black Community....... 47 W.E.B. Du Bois, Booker T. Washington, and Black Atlanta................. 49 The Black Atlanta(s)............................................................................... 55 On Politics .............................................................................................. 69 On Education.......................................................................................... 73 On Employment and Economics...........................................................