ENCYCLOPEDIA of COASTAL SCIENCE Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series ENCYCLOPEDIA OF COASTAL SCIENCE Volume Editor Maurice Schwartz is Professor Emeritus, Department of Geology at Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington, United States; where he served near the end of his tenure as Dean of the Graduate School and Bureau for Faculty Research. As well as being an author ofnumer- ous articles which have appeared in the coastal geology literature he was the editor of Spits and Bars (Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, 1972), Barrier Islands (Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, 1973), Encyclopedia of Beaches and Coastal Environments (Hutchinson Ross, 1982), and co-edited with Eric Bird The World’s Coastline (Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985). Advisory Board Eric Bird Dieter H. Kelletat Geostudies, 343 Beach Road Universität-GH Essen Black Rock, Victoria 3193 FB9-Physiogeographie Melbourne Universitaetsstrasse 15 Australia Essen 1 D-45117 Germany Charles W. Finkl CPE Coastal Geology and Geomatics Nicholas C. Kraus 2481 N.W. Boca Raton Blvd. U.S. Army, Coastal Hydraulics Laboratory Bacon Raton, FL 33431 Vicksburg, MS 39180 USA USA Saskia Jelgersma Paolo A. Pirazzoli Elzenlaan 6 CNRS – Laboratoire de Geographie Physique Bergen aan Zee 1865 BM 1, Place Aristide Briand The Netherlands 92195 Meudon cedex France Aim of the Series The Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Each volume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations and reference lists. These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community.Previous volumes are being updated and new works published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatologists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See the back of this volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Go to www.eseo.com to visit the “Earth Sciences Encyclopedia Online”—the online version of this Encyclopedia Series. About the Editors Professor Rhodes W. Fairbridge has edited more than 30 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has worked as a petro- leum geologist in the Middle East, been a WW II intelligence officer in the SW Pacific and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada, Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil and New Guinea. He is currently Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and is affiliated with the Goddard Institute for Space Studies. Professor Michael Rampino has published more than 100 papers in professional journals including Science, Nature, and Scientific American. He has worked in such diverse fields as volcanology, planetary science, sedimentology, and climate studies, and has done field work on six continents. He is currently Associate Professor of Earth and Environmental Sciences at New York University and a consultant at NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES ENCYCLOPEDIA of COASTAL SCIENCE edited by MAURICE L.SCHWARTZ Department of Geology Western Washington University, WA, USA A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN-13 978-1-4020-1903-6 (HB) ISBN-13 978-1-4020-3565-4 (e-book) ISBN-10 1-4020-1903-3 (HB) ISBN-10 1-4020-3565-9 (e-book) Published by Springer, PO Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands Printed on acid-free paper Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced from other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that due acknowledgement may be made in subsequent editions. All rights reserved © 2005 Springer No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Printed in the Netherlands To Evelyn Kest, my companion and inspiration Contents List of Contributors xv Asia, Middle East, Coastal Ecology and Geomorphology 71 Foreword xxxiii Paul Sanlaville and Abel Prieur Preface xxxv Asia, Southern (see Indian Ocean Coasts) 83 Asteroid-Impact Coasts 83 Accretion and Erosion Waves on Beaches 1 Rhodes W. Fairbridge Douglas L. Inman and Scott A. Jenkins Atlantic Ocean Islands, Coastal Ecology 84 Africa, Coastal Ecology 4 Annie Mercier and Jean-François Hamel Anton McLachlan Atlantic Ocean Islands, Coastal Geomorphology 88 Africa, Coastal Geomorphology 9 Jim D. Hansom Antony R. Orme Atolls 95 Airborne Laser Terrain Mapping and David Hopley Light Detection and Ranging 21 Stephen P. Leatherman, Dean Whitman, and Keqi Zhang Australia, Coastal Ecology 96 Karen S. Edyvane Algal Rims 24 Jacques Laborel Australia, Coastal Geomorphology 110 Eric Bird Alluvial-Plain Coasts 25 Daniel F. Belknap Barrier Islands 117 Miles O. Hayes Altimeter Surveys, Coastal Tides, and Shelf Circulation 27 Barrier 119 Guoqi Han Eric Bird Antarctica, Coastal Ecology and Geomorphology 28 Barriers, Gravel (see Gravel Barriers) 120 Andrew McMinn Bars 120 Aquaculture 33 Brian Greenwood Robert R. Stickney Bay Beaches 129 Archaeological Site Location, Effect of Karl F. Nordstrom Sea-Level Change38 Melanie J. Stright Beach and Nearshore Instrumentation 130 Robin Davidson-Arnott Archaeology 40 Lucille Lewis Johnson Beach Cusps (see Rhythmic Patterns) 138 Arctic, Coastal Ecology 45 Beach Drain 138 Jean-François Hamel and Annie Mercier Per Bruun Arctic, Coastal Geomorphology 49 Beach Erosion 140 H. Jesse Walker Edward J. Anthony Artificial Islands 55 Beach Features 145 Marcel J.F. Stive Michael J. Chrzastowski Asia, Eastern, Coastal Ecology 56 Beach Nourishment 147 Donald Macintosh Charles W. Finkl and H. Jesse Walker Asia, Eastern, Coastal Geomorphology 67 Beach Processes 161 D. Eisma John R. Dingler viii CONTENTS Beach Profile 169 Central America (see Middle America) 227 Nicholas C. Kraus Chalk Coasts 227 Beach Rating (see Rating Beaches) 172 Vincent May Beach Ridges 172 Changing Sea Levels 229 Ervin G. Otvos Nils-Axel Mörner Cheniers 233 Beach Safety (see Lifesaving and Beach Safety) 177 Ervin G. Otvos Beach Sediment Characteristics 177 Classification of Coasts (see Holocene Coastal Geomorphology) 235 Alan S. Trenhaile Cleaning Beaches 235 Beach Stratigraphy 179 Niels West Yoshiki Saito Cliffed Coasts 237 Beach Use and Behaviors 181 Alan S. Trenhaile Niels West Cliffs, Erosion Rates 240 Tsuguo Sunamura Beachrock 183 Robert J. Turner Cliffs, Lithology versus Erosion Rates 241 Tsuguo Sunamura Beaufort Wind Scale 186 Dilip K. Barua Climate Patterns in the Coastal Zone 243 Douglas L. Inman and Scott A. Jenkins Bioconstruction 186 William T. Fox Coastal Boundaries 246 Peter H.F. Graber Bioengineered Shore Protection 188 Kevin R. Hall Coastal Changes, Gradual 251 B.G. Thom and P.J. Cowell Bioerosion 191 William T. Fox Coastal Changes, Rapid 253 David B. Scott Biogenous Coasts (see Vegetated Coasts) 192 Coastal Climate 255 Biogeomorphology 192 David Greenland Martin J. Baptist Coastal Currents 259 Bioherms and Biostromes 194 Guy Gelfenbaum Jacques Laborel Coastal Engineering (see Shore Protection Structures; Black and Caspian Seas, Coastal Ecology and Geomorphology 194 Navigation Structures) 260 Yuri Dolotov and Pavel Kaplin Coastal Hoodoos 260 Bluffs (see Cliffed Coasts) 203 Shin Wang Bogs 203 Coastal Lakes and Lagoons 263 Martyn Waller George F. Oertel Boulder Barricades 204 Coastal Modeling and Simulation 266 Peter S. Rosen V. Chris Lakhan Boulder Beaches 206 Coastal Processes (see Beach Processes) 270 John McKenna Coastal Sedimentary Facies 270 Boulder Pavements 208 H. Edward Clifton Jim D. Hansom Coastal Soils 278 Bypassing at Littoral Drift Barriers 210 Charles W. Finkl Per Bruun Coastal Subsidence 302 Capping of Contaminated Coastal Areas 216 Zhongyuan Chen and John Rybczyk Ram K. Mohan Coastal Temperature Trends 304 Carbonate Sandy Beaches 218 George A. Maul Andrew D. Short Caribbean Islands, Coastal Ecology and Geomorphology 221 Coastal Upwelling and Downwelling 306 Gillian Cambers Dilip K. Barua Carrying Capacity in Coastal Areas 226 Coastal Warfare 308 M. MacLeod and J.Andrew G. Cooper Peter L. Guth Cays 227 Coastal Wells 311 David Hopley Yaacov Nir CONTENTS ix Coastal Wind Effects 312 Desalination 378 Terry R. Healy Bénédicte Cherbuy and Jean-Christophe Aznar Coastal Zone Management 313 Desert Coasts 379 Peter W. French Rodman E. Snead Coastline Changes 319 Dewatering (see Beach Drain) 387 Eric Bird Developed Coasts 387 Coasts, Coastlines, Shores, and Shorelines 323 Nancy L. Jackson and Karl F. Nordstrom George F. Oertel Cohesive Sediment Transport 327 Dikes 388 Parmeshwar L. Shrestha and Alan F. Blumberg Pieter G.E.F. Augustinus Computer Simulation (see Coastal Modeling and Simulation) 330 Dissipative Beaches 389 Douglas J. Sherman Conservation of Coastal Sites 330 Vincent May Dredging of Coastal Environments 390 Per Bruun Continental Shelves 337 A.W. Niedoroda Drift and Swash Alignments 395 Eric Bird Conversion Tables (see Appendix 1) 339 Driftwood 397 Coral ReefCoasts 339 Thomas A. Terich Charles R.C. Sheppard Dune Calcarenite (see Eolianite) 398 Coral Reef Islands342 Gisèle Muller-Parker Dune Ridges 398 Terry R. Healy Coral Reefs 343 David Hopley Dynamic Equilibrium of Beaches 399 Robert G. Dean Coral Reefs, Emerged 349 David Hopley Economic Value of Beaches 401 Cross-Shore Sediment Transport 352 William B. Stronge Richard J. Seymour El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) 403 Cross-Shore Variation of Grain Size on Beaches 353 Henry F. Diaz Philip D. Osborne and David P. Simpson Endogenic and Exogenic Factors 407 Cuspate Forelands 354 Henry Bokuniewicz Stephen J. Craig-Smith Energy and Sediment Budgets of the Dalmatian Coasts 356 Global Coastal Zone 408 Dieter Kelletat Douglas L. Inman and Scott A. Jenkins Dams, Effect on Coasts 357 Engineering Applications of Coastal Jiyu Chen Geomorphology 415 John R.C.