Running head: LABELS & DOUBLE STANDARDS 1 Double Standards in Perceived Traits of Women Labeled Victims vs. Survivors Aanchal Setia1, Michael Marks2, and Sieun An1 1 Ashoka University, India 2 New Mexico State University, USA Address correspondence to: Sieun An, Ph.D. Assistant Professor Ashoka University [email protected] LABELS & DOUBLE STANDARDS 2 Abstract Media reports on sexual assaults are omnipresent in today’s societies. Applying the labels “victim” and “survivor” to women who have been sexually assaulted influences their identities by evoking certain stereotypical images. However, the use of these labels is possibly affected by double standards in contemporary society. Certain traits are viewed more positively for men than women. The present study aimed to investigate the presence of the double standard phenomenon in the labelling of women who have been sexually assaulted. Two studies were conducted. Study 1 examined differences in character traits attached to the labels. Results showed significant differences for 13 of 15 adjectives in the victim vs. survivor label conditions. Study 2 consisted of two sub-studies that examined the double standard nature of these character traits using explicit (2a) and implicit measures (2b). Study 2a did not show pronounced effects of the double standard. However, findings of Study 2b demonstrated that the character traits attached to the label “survivor” suggest a double standard. The findings underscore the impact of labelling on women who have been sexually assaulted. Further implications are discussed. Keywords: sexual assault, double standard, sexual stereotypes, explicit bias, implicit bias LABELS & DOUBLE STANDARDS 3 Double Standards in Perceived Traits of Women Labeled Victims vs. Survivor Labels such as victim and survivor reflect the experiences and recovery of the women who have been raped (Hockett & Saucier, 2015). However, these labels themselves are associated with multiple connotations (Thompson, 2000), which may contribute to the stigma attached to the sexual assault. Our research aims to elucidate the character traits associated with these labels. Additionally, there exists a discrepancy regarding the behavioral expectations between men and women, which is termed as the sexual double standard phenomenon (Sakaluk & Milhausen, 2012). Therefore, it is plausible that the character traits associated with labels could also possibly exhibit the double standard, i.e. certain character traits are favourable for men and unfavourable for women due to these traditional gender based expectations of behaviour. The present study aimed to investigate the prevalence of double standard in the labels (victim vs. survivor) associated with women who have been sexually assaulted. To our knowledge, this is the first study to link the labels with double standards. This is important to study, as it helps us understand how these labels evoke sexual stereotypes and reinforce the trauma as well as shape the identity of the women who have been sexually assaulted. Labelling of Sexually Assaulted Women Women who have been sexually assaulted are typically labelled as victims and/or survivors in contemporary society. The labels victim and survivor have different connotations attached to them (van Dijk, 2009). For example, a victim is associated with perceptions of passivity and vulnerability, whereas a survivor is associated with those of strength and recovery (Thompson, 2000). These labels not only carry these different connotations, but also influence the identities of the woman who have been raped (Hockett & Saucier, 2015). In addition, it affects the way people respond to women who have been sexually assaulted, LABELS & DOUBLE STANDARDS 4 which may further affect their recovery. Therefore, there is a need to better understand these labels and their possible consequences on women who have been sexually assaulted. Victim and survivor encapsulate different experiences of the women who have been raped. The label victim elicits sympathy and support from others, and the label survivor elicits a positive self-identity respected by others (Thompson, 2000). However, the findings of Hockett, McGraw, and Saucier (2014) suggest that people associate the label victim with more negatively valenced characteristics such as having fewer coping characteristics compared to the label survivor. McCarthy (1986) also explained that the internalization of the label “victim” frames sexual assault as the dominant event in the assaulted person’s life. The victim label might elicit compassion for women who have been assaulted; however, it also assigns them with restraining connotations attached to the term itself, like passivity or forgiveness (Hockett & Saucier, 2015). Hence, recently, people use the label “survivor” rather than “victim” in an attempt to break free from the negative stigma associated with the label “victim” (van Dijk, 2009). Such a transition in the choice of labels raises an important question: whether this transition has entirely positive outcomes. Double Standards Exhibited by the Labels There are prevalent differences in the traditional gender-based expectations of the behavior from both men and women (Sakaluk & Milhausen, 2012). For example, men are rewarded for multiple sexual activities whereas women are derogated for the same behavior (Barash & Lipton, 2001). Such discrepancies in the expectations on which men and women are held in the society are labelled as the sexual double standard (Crawford & Popp, 2003). The sexual double standard is evident in three broad areas: sexual fidelity is expected from women more than men, and both sex without affection and initiation of sex is deemed appropriate only for men compared to women (Bordini & Sperb, 2013; Marks & Fraley, LABELS & DOUBLE STANDARDS 5 2005). It is important to study as it continues to influence behaviors and perceptions of people (Bordini & Sperb, 2013; Mark & Miller, 1986; Milhausen & Herold, 2000). The sexual double standard also contributes to miscommunication and sexual assault (Muehlenhard, 1988). It has perpetuated the notion that women engage in token resistance to sex (Muehlenhard & Rodgers, 1998); i.e. they reject sexual advances with an intention to engage in them. Osman (2006) found that male participants who had a weaker belief in token resistance to sex understood that coitus occurred non-consensually when women said ‘No’ compared to participants who had a stronger belief in token resistance. This implies that the prevalent sexual double standard has trivialized the value of women’s consent. Additionally, the sexual double standard significantly influences the acceptance of rape myths (Choi & Kim, 1998; Lee, Kim, & Lee, 2010). People with a strong belief in the sexual double standard hold the belief that rape occurs spontaneously due to the uncontrollable sexual desires of men (Cowan & Quinton, 1997; Lee, Kim, & Lee, 2010). Further, rape is also trivialized and justified due to social perceptions of traits such as dominance and submissiveness attributed to men and women, respectively (Warner, 2000). Certain character traits associated with the labels might also be deemed desirable for men but undesirable for women. For example, findings related to double standards suggest that the connotation of the traits associated with these labels applies differently for women as compared to men due to the prevalent double standards in contemporary society (Marks & Fraley, 2005; Prentice & Carranza, 2002; Zaikman & Marks, 2015). For women to be perceived as emotionally healthy, they need to have conventional feminine traits such as submissiveness, reduced competitiveness, and sensitivity (Seem & Clark, 2006). Indeed, adjectives such as “extroverted,” “dominant,” “confident,” “active,” and “strong” are classified as agentic traits that are undesirable for women but desirable for men (Eagly & Carli, 2012; Nass, Moon, & Green, 1997; Rudman & Glick, 1999; Zaikman & Marks, 2016). LABELS & DOUBLE STANDARDS 6 Additionally, the adjective “loud” is an acceptable stereotype for men in society, but is viewed as aggressive when associated with women (Thomas, Witherspoon & Speight, 2004). Therefore, we believe it is plausible that the character traits attached to the label survivor might be negatively valenced. The sexual double standard phenomenon represents the notion that men have more sexual freedom compared to women (Milhausen & Harold, 2001). Therefore, women who perform sexual actions that are inconsistent with the sexual norms of society are perceived in a negative light. Few traits associated with the labels such as dominance and extraversion might also defy the conventional restrictions of freedom posed by society on women. Therefore, the objective of the research is to examine the sexual double standard effect in the labels (victim vs. survivor) that are used to address women who have been sexually assaulted. These labels might extend the trauma of the assaulted person by socially victimizing them and influencing their identity (Hockett & Saucier, 2015; Marks & An, 2019). Study 1 Framing of the descriptions of sexually assaulted women via the use of labels may hold positive and negative consequences for said women Papendick and Bohner’s (2017) Study 1 suggested that positive traits are more strongly associated with the label “survivor” compared to the label “victim.” However, they did not measure the valence of these traits that were associated with the labels. Therefore, we suspect that the traits associated with the label survivor