Perceptions of Native and Nonnative Speakers and Observational Analysis of “Divergent” Japanese Language Teachers in Context DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Shinsuke Tsuchiya, M.A. Graduate Program in East Asian Languages and Literatures The Ohio State University 2016 Dissertation Committee: Charles Quinn, Ph.D., Advisor Mari Noda, Ph.D. Keiko Samimy, Ph.D. Copyright by Shinsuke Tsuchiya 2016 Abstract This dissertation explores the construction and effects of the notion of “native speaker,” on teachers, mostly graduate teaching associates, in a Japanese language program at a large university in the American midwest. Specifically, it attempts to answer the following two research questions: (1) How do language teachers and students of Japanese in this program perceive native and nonnative language teachers? and (2) How does the iconic construct of “native speaker” affect the language teachers of Japanese in this study? To answer these research questions, both quantitative and qualitative data have been collected from teachers and students of Japanese, and for the purpose of comparison, Chinese, using a triangulation approach that combines survey questionnaires (N=593) with interviews (10 hours of audio recordings) and observations (80 hours of video recordings). Prior research has described the unique challenges that nonnative-speaking teachers face as language teachers (e.g., Braine, 1999). In support of struggling nonnative-speaking language teachers, researchers have noted their advantageous characteristics as well as ways they can contribute as language professionals, owing to their unique backgrounds (e.g., Abe & Yokoyama, 1990; Benke & Medgyes, 2006; Sukle, 1977). Additionally, strategies to overcome the challenges they face have been recommended (Horwitz, 1996). ii However, many studies on this topic rely on their own intuitive grasp of what a native speaker is, and do not provide a definition of the term. As well, studies on this topic conducted outside the context of TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) are limited in the U.S., as Ferguson (2005) and Meadows and Muramatsu (2007) note.1 Moreover, there is a tendency to regard native and nonnative speakers as two homogeneous groups in a dichotomy with certain idealized and stigmatized characterizations (Doerr, 2009a; Sato & Doerr, 2008; Tanaka, 2013). This view has often disregarded characteristics found in both groups, when they do not fit well into the dichotomy (Irvine & Gal, 2000). The present study provides additional insights to this topic by examining its quantitative and qualitative data through Clark’s (1996) notion of community and Irvine and Gal’s (2000) three semiotic processes of language ideology and linguistic differentiation, namely: (1) iconization, (2) fractal recursivity, and (3) erasure. Specifically, iconic and ideological representations are created through a process of iconization, in which certain linguistic features linked with social groups or activities are transformed to be iconic representations of them, which involves some degree of abstraction. In the process of fractal recursivity, or an opposition salient at some level of relationship which is projected onto some other domains, or domains, as a similar dichotomy, differentiation between native and nonnative speakers is projected onto other levels of dichotomy such as standard and non-standard, linguistically correct and 1 There are non-TESOL studies on this topic outside of the U.S., such as studies conducted in Japanese language education in and outside of Japan (cf. Abe & Yokoyama, 1991; Yokoyama, 2005; Hirahata, 2014; Tanaka, 2013). iii incorrect, or even morally good and bad. Erasure refers to the practice in which those who do not fit into the dichotomy are disregarded and/or explained away. My quantitative and qualitative data illustrate how the educated, standard-dialect speaker is iconized, as s/he is treated as the model native speaker, how native-speaker status is perceived with idealized characteristics, and what language teachers do to adjust their “divergent” characteristics when they feel that they are different from the iconized model. Major quantitative findings from the survey data collected from teachers and students of Japanese and Chinese are as follows: (1) language students, in comparison to their teachers, assumed native speakers to have more specific and idealized characteristics; (2) language students and teachers indicated that they respectively preferred or expected their students to prefer native-speaking teachers of Japanese and Chinese than nonnative-speaking teachers; (3) in comparison to students who are native speakers of English, native speakers of Chinese and Korean were found to have more specific and idealized characterization of “native speaker” and a stronger preference for native-speaking teachers; (4) native speakers of English who are ethnically Asian had a weaker tendency to prefer either native or nonnative-speaking teachers, in comparison to racially white participants; (5) those who grew up speaking multiple languages, in comparison to those who grew up speaking English, had a stronger preference for nonnative-speaking teachers; (6) teacher participants, in comparison to beginning-level student participants, expected their students to prefer both native- and nonnative-speaking teachers more than their students actually did; (7) learners of Japanese, in comparison to iv learners of Chinese, had a stronger preference for native-speaking teachers, and slightly lower preference for nonnative-speaking teachers. My ethnographic and qualitative data were used to account for communal and individual factors that are not captured in the quantitative data. Qualitative data illustrate how the notion of “Japanese native speaker” has been iconized in the language program as educated uptown2 Tokyo dialect speakers who are not experienced communicating with foreigners. Such characterizations were used to put an emphasis on pronunciation and pitch accent of the standard dialect during the teacher training, as well as establishing language program policies such as encouraging students and teachers to not use English in speaking/listening classes. Certain communal differences between the Japanese and Chinese programs, in particular, teaching assignments and a seemingly stronger adherence to the standard language, may have contributed to a stronger preference for native-speaking teachers in the Japanese program. The effects of the notion of the standard language “native speaker” on the four focal participants of Japanese teachers were documented with a focus on their (non)acquisition of the standard pitch accent and their reactions to the guidelines set by the language program. In addressing pedagogical implications, ways to “deconstruct” the iconic standard, while still incorporating a standard dialect in language programs are discussed. Suggestions for helping language teacher trainees improve their language proficiency and deal with their anxiety are proposed, and a call is made to question and rethink our assumptions about native and nonnative speakers. 2 Specifically, the upland or Yamanote parts of Tokyo. v Dedication To the team of “divergent” foreign language teachers around the world vi Acknowledgments I would first like to express my gratitude for my committee members for their support and guidance. It has been my privilege to have Dr. Charles Quinn as my advisor. His distinctive insights as a nonnative speaker of Japanese and thorough feedback on numerous drafts immensely helped shape my dissertation. I am thankful for Dr. Mari Noda who has provided excellent pedagogical trainings for many language teachers including myself. It has been my honor to work with an exceptional team of language teachers under her supervision. I am also indebted to Dr. Keiko Samimy who allowed me to join her course on professional development of nonnative language professionals. My interest on the issue of the native speaker fallacy would not have developed without her kind guidance. I would also like to thank other individuals who have played an important role in completing my dissertation. Specifically, I am thankful for Dr. Mineharu Nakayama and his students in his class (Research presentations in East Asian Languages and Literatures) for allowing me to present my research findings not just once, but twice. The comments I received from them were particularly helpful in reorganizing my data set for better presentation. I am also thankful for Dr. Etsuyo Yuasa for providing valuable insights about the language program from a faculty perspective. A special thanks also goes to my friend Kyle Bartholomew who has been willing to guide my statistical analysis along the vii way. I could not have done the statistics without his thorough explanations and encouragement. Many thanks go to teachers and students of Japanese and Chinese who were willing to let me observe their classes, and for taking the time to answer my questions in interviews and survey questionnaires without any monetary reward. It has been a very insightful experience for me to observe many excellent examples of language instruction performed in class, and to learn their thoughts on it all. Lastly, I would like to express my gratitude for my family members. I am thankful for my parents for raising me and trusting me to let me explore what I was interested in studying