Study Unit Manufacturing Processes, Part 4 By Thomas Gregory Manufacturers must organize and manage resources to maxi- mize the profitability of their operation. Global competition has caused significant changes in the way business is con- ducted and managed, especially in two areas: manufacturing standards and product quality. Increased emphasis on Preview Preview product quality means that almost every manufacturer must now rely on a quality assurance (QA) program and embrace defined quality standards. Controlling the manufacturing process requires extensive use of technical communication and management tools, many of which are directly imple- mented by technicians. In fact, manufacturing technicians can significantly influence their company’s ability to prof- itably produce high-value goods. When you complete this study unit, you’ll be able to • Understand and describe the basic functions of manage- ment and the principles on which work is organized in a manufacturing business • Understand and describe various types of production control systems • Describe the basic concepts behind modern production systems • Explain how modern QA systems affect the manufacturing processes and product and process quality • Understand how modern network-based communications technologies will affect the manufacturing process now and in the future iii Contents Contents AN INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING ORGANIZATIONS 1 Scientific Management 3 Early Work Organization 3 Factors of Production 11 MANUFACTURING FORMATS 14 Types of Manufacturing Production 14 Equipment Layout 19 AUTOMATION AND MECHANIZATION 29 Evaluating Automation 30 Automation Strategies 34 Industrial Robots 35 MANUFACTURING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 46 Just-in-Time (JIT) Manufacturing 47 Lean Manufacturing 49 Quality Management and Quality Assurance Systems 51 eManufacturing 60 The Future of Manufacturing 64 SELF-CHECK ANSWERS 67 EXAMINATION 69 v Manufacturing Processes, Part 4 AN INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING ORGANIZATIONS In your previous studies you’ve learned about many impor- tant aspects of manufacturing materials and processes, and factors that determine efficient and effective production practices. For any given product, a wide variety of material choices and manufacturing methods are available, but in a practical manufacturing environment, these choices some- times come with constraints that are beyond the engineer’s or technician’s control. A manufacturing company must organ- ize and manage its resources in a way that maximizes the value of those resources and the profit from production. The most efficient organization of a manufacturing business depends on many factors, including business location, type of product, production volume, availability of skilled labor, government regulations, and market competition. In recent years, especially since access to the Internet became widespread after 1994, communications and data management techniques have become more sophisticated, resulting in globalization of industries. Globalization has resulted in greater marketing opportunities for U.S. compa- nies and, perhaps more importantly, for other businesses located in less developed countries around the world, such as India, China, and Southeast Asia. Along with an expanded market, U.S. and European companies are also experiencing greater competition in businesses where manual labor or lower-level technical help is significantly less expensive abroad. 1 You’ve probably noticed the number of products now using metric dimensions, and seen product directions printed in multiple languages. American manufacturers are adopting international measurement standards to gain more access to international markets. QA programs are spreading, too. We’ve had QA programs in specific industries in this country for many years, such as the nuclear power industry. Today, many companies are adopting internationally recognized QA systems such as ISO 9000. As a manufacturing technician, you need to be aware of industry trends that will affect both your job and your company’s ability to produce high-value goods. You’ll undoubtedly work under a QA system that regulates manu- facturing processes, and you may be called on to use more extensive technical communication and management tools. In this unit we’ll discuss some of the more important concepts that relate to managing production systems. Operations research is the general term used for the study of management of manufacturing processes, with the general goal of maximizing the effective use of business resources. As we go to our jobs on a regular—probably daily—basis, we tend to overlook some of the larger aspects of what we do, why we do it, and who tells us how to do it. We have skills we bring to a job, and our employer expects us to use those skills to the best of our ability to further the company’s goals. Many jobs have written job descriptions, which are detailed descriptions of all the responsibilities and skill requirements a particular position demands. These documents are usually written with the cooperation of the management, the direct supervisors of the employee, and the human resources department, which oversees the legal aspects of hiring and firing personnel. Our work is organized for us, and we seldom give any additional thought as to how we got to where we are. However, by studying developments in work organization and the evolution of modern manufacturing organizations, we can learn how all of the pieces fit together to make a competitive and profitable organization in an increasingly global economy. 2 Manufacturing Processes, Part 4 Scientific Management The term scientific management was first applied to early researchers’ attempts to examine the tasks done by workers in early factories, and to use the analysis of the results to improve the organization of work. Frederick W. Taylor (1856–1915) was one of the early pioneers in this area, and his rigorous observations and astute analyses were recognized as having important consequences for the organization and manage- ment of factories of his day. Eventually, his and others’ work evolved into the recognized discipline of industrial engineering, which is an important engineering category today. In the next section we’ll discuss how the organization of work evolved from early manufacturing models to today’s modern factory, and how managers have attempted to improve the productivity of various work arrangements. Early Work Organization The work of people has been organized in many ways since before written history, perhaps even beginning with the separation of people into “hunters,” “gatherers,” or “farmers.” Early communities were governed by a chief or other leader who made the decisions on expected work “assignments” and the division of goods produced, captured, or otherwise acquired by the group. In a sense, this was the first management structure developed by humans: an autocracy (rule of one) based on physical power. As societies became more complex, people’s work became more specialized, and more members in a group were con- cerned with a particular product or developing certain skills. Think about the people who were the first farmers, potters, weavers, or sword makers. For small groups, individuals could probably do all of the tasks necessary to manufacture their products. However, as the number of people in a group, community, or state grew, a demand for increased quantities of products resulted in a further separation of duties and skills. In medieval times, the concept of apprenticeship arose, where younger members of a group or family learned the skills of the master by first doing menial tasks, and later more complex and important tasks as their skills increased. Manufacturing Processes, Part 4 3 Apprentices were the beginners in a trade, journeymen were intermediate-level skilled workers, and masters were the experts. We still apply these categories to many trades now in existence. Work in these organizations was directed by the master, and many masters of a trade in a given region were loosely governed by a guild, an organization of craftsmen engaged in similar occupations who communicated informally about issues related to their businesses (Figure 1). FIGURE 1—In medieval times, apprentices pro- gressed from trainees to Trade Guild journeyman level and eventually joined the Master Master Master loose confederation of Mason Wright Carpenter masters within a guild. Journeyman Journeyman Journeyman Mason Wright Carpenter Apprentice Apprentice Apprentice Mason Wright Carpenter Organization of work on a larger scale was probably first done with the development of class structures in society. Increasing division of labor in larger societies was caused by the development of a government in which the principal ruler didn’t have direct authority over individuals, but instead entrusted supervision and authority to appointed managers or bureaucrats. Distinct economic classes soon developed that determined who did what, and under whose direction. Children born into an economic class were likely to stay there, and families were often confined to specific occupa- tions, passed down from father to son for generations. If you think about our personal naming conventions, you can see remnants of this practice in surnames such as Potter, Smith, Weaver, or Cook. 4 Manufacturing Processes, Part 4 The Romans wrote some of the first management texts about the division of labor on their estates. Their surviving texts specify the desired number of supervisors, farmhands, animal tenders, and slaves