Notes Introduction 1. Johnson, Th e Holy War Idea, p. 21; Said, Orientalism; and Covering Islam. 2. Firestone, Jihād, p. 13. 3. Johnson, Th e Holy War Idea, p. 19. 4. Ibid., p. 22. 5. Ibid., p. 23. 6. Donner, “Th e Sources of Islamic Conceptions of War,” p. 57. 7. Firestone, Jihād, p. 13. 8. Martin, “Th e Religious Foundations of War, Peace, and Statecraft in Islam,” p. 108. See also Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation, p. 35. 9. Haddad, “Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm: Th e Islamist Perspective,” p. 256. See also, e.g., Otterbeck, “Th e Depiction of Islam in Sweden,” pp. 143– 156. Margaret Pettygrove indicates that “Th e demonization and reduction of Islam in popular American culture, particularly with respect to suicide bomb- ings and Political Islam, suggests that Islam is an inherently violent or extremist religion” (“Conceptions of War in Islamic Legal Th eory and Practice,” p. 35). See also Abu-Nimer, “A Framework for Nonviolence and Peacebuilding in Islam,” p. 221. 10. Huntington, “Th e Clash of Civilizations?,” p. 48. See also Huntington, Th e Clash of Civilization and the Remaking of World Order. 11. See Buaben, Image of the Prophet Muh.ammad in the West, pp. 327, 329. 12. Watt, Bell’s Introduction to the Qur’ān, p. 182. 1 War during the Prophet’s Lifetime 1. See Watt, Muhammad at Medina, pp. 336–338; Watt, Muh.ammad: Prophet and Statesman, pp. 241 f. 2. Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah. 3. See Ibn Kathīr, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 1, p. 24. 4. Al- Wāqidī, Al- Maghāzī. 206 NOTES 5. Hinds, “Maghāzī,” p. 1163. According to al- Ghunaimi, al- Wāqidī is considered one of “the most famous four, among the many, fabricators of h. adīth.” See al- Ghunaimi, Qānūn al- Salām fī al- Islām, p. 150. 6. According to Lane, maghāzī means “Th e memorable deeds of . those who engage in warring, or warring and plundering, expeditions.” See Lane, An Arabic- English Lexicon, Vol. 6, p. 2257. 7. Ṭanṭāwī, Al- Sarāyā al- Ḥarbiyyah, p. 21; al- Maṣrī, Ghazawāt al- Rasūl, pp. 32 f.; Aboul- Enein and Zuhur, “Islamic Rulings on Warfare,” p. 6. 8. Hinds, “Maghāzī,” p. 1162. 9. Firestone, Jihād, p. 106. 10. Ibid., p. 110. 11. Ibid., p. 107. 12. Ibid., p. 105. 13. Ibid., p. 131. 14. Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 1, p. 190; Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, p. 117. 15. Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 1, p. 211; Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, p. 131. 16. Hashmi, “Islam, Sunni,” p. 217. On the religious persecution and tor- ture of the Muslims during the Meccan period, see Ṣaqr, Falsafah al- Ḥarb, pp. 9–21. 17. Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 1, pp. 233 f.; Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, p. 144. 18. Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 1, p. 235; Riḍā, Tafsīr al- Manār, Vol. 2, pp. 316 f. 19. Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, p. 145. 20. Salahi, Muhammad Man and Prophet, p. 132; Riḍā, Tafsīr al- Manār, Vol. 2, p. 317; al-Ḥ ifnī, Mawsū‛ah al- Qur’ān, Vol. 2, p. 1910. 21. See Watt, Muhammad at Mecca, p. 134; Watt, “Abū Djahl,” p. 115. 22. Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 1, p. 236; Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, p. 145. See Lawrence, Th e Qur’ān, p. 41. 23. Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, p. 145; Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 1, pp. 236 f. Where direct quotations are taken from Guillaume’s translation, his transla- tion is given in the references before Ibn Ish. āq’s original text. 24. Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, p. 143; Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 1, p. 233. 25. Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 1, p. 236; Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, p. 145. 26. Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, p. 146; Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 1, p. 237. 27. Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 1, pp. 247–251; Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, pp. 150–153; Haykal, Th e Life of Muh. ammad, pp. 98–100; Mah. mūd, Al- Jihād fī al- Islām, pp. 6–8. 28. Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 1, p. 260; Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, pp. 159–161. 29. Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 2, pp. 14 f.; Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, pp. 191 f.; Ibn Sayyid al-Nās, ‛Uyūn al- Athar, Vol. 1, pp. 226–231; Watt, Muhammad at Mecca, p. 137; Firestone, Jihād, p. 109. NOTES 207 30. Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 2, pp. 17–30; Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, pp. 192–199; Watt, Muhammad at Mecca, pp. 140 f. 31. Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 2, pp. 24–53; Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, pp. 197–213. 32. Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 2, p. 64; Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, p. 221. 33. Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, p. 222; Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 2, pp. 64–65. 34. Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 2, pp. 66–68; Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, pp. 222 f. See Qur’ān (8:30; 36:1–9). 35. Ibn Isha.q, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 2, p. 69; Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, p. 224. 36. Watt, Muh.ammad: Prophet and Statesman, p. 74. 37. Watt, Muhammad at Mecca, pp. 134–136; Esposito, Unholy War, pp. 29 f. 38. Arnold, Th e Preaching of Islam, p. 14. See also Watt, Muhammad at Mecca, pp. 134–136; Akbar, Th e Shade of Swords, p. 1; Dakake, “Th e Myth of a Militant Islam,” p. 60. 39. Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 1, pp. 245–247; Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, pp. 148–150. 40. See Ḥammīdullāh, Battlefi elds, pp. 16, 27 f.; Alsumaih, “Th e Sunni Concept of Jihad,” pp. 191 f. 41. Watt, Muhammad at Medina, p. 242. 42. Lammens, Islām: Beliefs and Institutions, p. 27. See also Agilinko, “A Comparative Study of the Just War and Islamic Jihad Traditions,” p. 54. 43. See Iqbal, Diplomacy in Early Islam, pp. 42 f. 44. Shākir, Al- Tārīkh al- Islāmī, p. 91. 45. Arnold, Th e Preaching of Islam, p. 31; see also Watt, “Badw,” pp. 889–892; Shākir, Al- Tārīkh al- Islāmī, p. 91; Khadduri, War and Peace, p. 62. 46. See Donner, “Th e Sources of Islamic Conceptions of War,” p. 34. According to Michael Bonner, “Islam arose in an environment where warfare—or at any rate, armed violence with some degree of organization and planning—was a characteristic of everyday life” (Jihad in Islamic History, p. 7). 47. Watt, Muhammad at Medina, p. 246. 48. Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 2, pp. 24–53; Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, pp. 198–212; Watt, Muhammad at Mecca, pp. 144–149. 49. Watt, Muhammad at Medina, p. 1; Watt, Muhammad at Mecca, pp. 143 f. 50. Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 2, p. 25; Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, p. 198. 51. Arnold, Th e Preaching of Islam, p. 47. See also Watt, Muhammad at Mecca, p. 143. 52. Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 2, pp. 83 f.; Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, pp. 230 f. 53. See Watt, Muhammad at Medina, pp. 225–228; Denny, “Ummah in the Constitution of Medina,” p. 39. 54. See Ibn Khaldūn, Tārīkh Ibn Khaldūn, Vol. 2, pp. 422 f.; al-Ṣ alih. ī, ‛Ulūm al- Ḥadīth, p. 29; Rubin, “Th e ‘Constitution of Medina’ Some Notes,” p. 18; Kamali, A Textbook of Hadīth Studies, p. 26. 55. See Ḥammīdullāh, Battlefi elds, pp. 16 f. 56. Al- Wāqidī, Al- Maghāzī, Vol. 1, p. 165. 208 NOTES 57. See Watt, Muhammad at Medina, pp. 225–228. 58. Serjeant, “Th e ‘Constitution of Medina,’ ” p. 3. 59. Ibn Ish.āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 2, p. 85; Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, pp. 231 f. 60. Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, p. 232. 61. Serjeant, “Th e Sunnah Jāmi‛ah, Pacts with the Yathrib Jews,” p. 168. 62. Watt, Muhammad at Medina, p. 221. See also Iqbal, Diplomacy in Early Islam, p. 36. 63. Haykal, Th e Life of Muh.ammad, p. 182; Ḥammīdullāh, Battlefi elds, p. 17. 64. Rubin, “Th e ‘Constitution of Medina’ Some Notes,” p. 11. See also Ḥammīdullāh, Battlefi elds, p. 18. 65. On the articles of the Constitution of Medina that attempted to bring about peace and end “confl ict that had been plaguing the region for genera- tions,” see Yildirim, “Peace and Confl ict Resolution in the Medina Charter,” pp. 109–117. 66. Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 2, p. 86; Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, p. 233. 67. Watt, Muhammad at Medina, p. 241. 68. Th is article is incorrectly translated by Serjeant as “Th ere is good will and sincerity of intention between them”; see his “Th e Sunnah Jāmi‛ah, Pacts with the Yathrib Jews,” p. 183. Firestone translates it as “Th ere must be friendly counsel and mutual guidance between them”; see Firestone, Jihād, p. 122. 69. Ibn Ish. āq, Al- Sīrah, Vol. 2, p. 87; Guillaume, Th e Life of Muhammad, p. 233. 70. See Watt, “Badw,” pp. 889–892. 71. Johnstone, “Ghazw,” p. 1055. 72. Watt, Muh.ammad: Prophet and Statesman, p. 105; see also his What is Islam?, pp. 108 f. On wars in pre- Islamic Arabia, see al- Qāsimī, Al- Jihād wa al-Ḥ uqūq al- Dawliyyah, pp. 116–122. See also on pre- Islamic Mecca, Ibrahim, “Social and Economic Conditions in Pre- Islamic Mecca,” pp.