UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI MILANO Graduate School in Social and Political Sciences Dipartimento Scienze Sociali e Politiche Corso di Dottorato di ricerca in Sociologia-XXVI ciclo INVISIBILE AMONG THE MARGINALS; SOCIAL INEQUALITIES AND VULNERABILITY TO NATURAL HAZARDS FOR AFGHAN WOMEN AND GIRLS IN TEHRAN METROPOLITAN AREA A THESIS SUBMITTED I N PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT S OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (PH.D) IN SO CIOLOGY By: Ahoo Salem Supervisor: Maurizio Ambrosini December 2014 i CONTENTS 1 Chapter one: Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Urban areas and unequal distribution of disasters ......................................................... 1 1.2 Problem background; assyemetries of disaster vulnerability in Tehran ......................... 4 1.3 Research objectives ....................................................................................................... 10 1.3.1 Research questions ................................................................................................ 12 1.4 Research Implications and scope ................................................................................... 13 1.5 Structure of the dissertation .......................................................................................... 16 2 Chapter two: Main concepts and trends .............................................................................. 18 2.1 Unnaturalness of natural disasters; evolution of perspectives ..................................... 18 2.2 Social research on hazards and disasters ...................................................................... 22 2.2.1 Concept of Vulnerability; emergence and application .......................................... 26 2.3 The Vulnerability perspective in hazards and disaster studies ...................................... 28 2.3.1 livelihoods and access to resources ....................................................................... 30 2.3.1.1 Access to resources and differential vulnerability ......................................... 34 2.3.2 Structure and agency seen through the vulnerability paradigm ........................... 37 2.3.3 Coping mechanisms ............................................................................................... 39 2.4 Summary of the chapter ................................................................................................ 41 3 Chapter three: Theorietical framework ................................................................................ 42 3.1 Progression of vulnerability in everyday life .................................................................. 42 3.1.1 Theoretical framework; synergies and intersections ............................................ 46 3.1.2 Social production of gendered vulnerability to disasters ...................................... 49 3.2 Why are migrants more vulnerable to disasters ........................................................... 52 3.3 Migration and gender; a brief picture of possible synergies ......................................... 58 ii 3.3.3 Earthquake vulnerability and capacity for safety .................................................. 61 3.4 Summary of the chapter ................................................................................................ 63 4 Chapter four: Research Methods and findings ..................................................................... 65 4.1 Section one: Secondary data sources ............................................................................ 65 4.2 Women in Iran; from daily lives to policies ................................................................... 68 4.2.1 Marginalization of Iranian women in the private sphere ...................................... 70 4.2.2 Marginalization of women in the public sphere .................................................... 72 4.3 Afghan movement to Iran; a brief background ............................................................. 75 4.3.1 Iran as a host country; asylum policies and strategies .......................................... 77 4.3.1.1 Phase one: 1979 - 1992, Open door policy .................................................... 79 4.3.1.2 Phase 2: 1992-2000, Repatriation strategies ................................................. 81 4.3.1.3 Phase 3: 2000-2003; Sealed borders for Afghanistan .................................... 81 4.3.1.4 Phase 4: 2003- present, Amayesh scheme and re-registration ..................... 82 4.3.2 Afghanistan and Iran; similarities and differences ................................................ 84 4.3.2.1 Lives of Afghans in Iran; socio-cultural detrminants...................................... 91 4.3.2.2 Lives of Afghans in Iran; legislations, rights and permits ............................... 93 4.3.2.3 Afghans integration in labor market .............................................................. 94 4.3.2.4 Basic services; education and health care ..................................................... 95 4.3.2.5 Marriage and family formation ...................................................................... 97 4.4 Section two: Primary data sources ................................................................................ 98 4.4.1 Collection of data; Primary sources ....................................................................... 98 4.4.2 Collection of data: research location and methods ............................................. 100 4.4.2.1 Khane i Baraye Ayande- A house for future ................................................. 105 4.4.2.2 Khane koodak e Naser-khosrow; Naser-Khosrow house of children........... 107 iii 4.4.3 The sample and collection of data ....................................................................... 109 4.5 Group one: Charachterisctics of the study group ........................................................ 113 4.5.1 Demographics, apperance and accent ................................................................. 113 4.5.2 Origin, reason for migration and length of stay ................................................... 117 4.6 Group two: Household’s Socio-economic conditions .................................................. 126 4.6.1 Educational attainment and jobs ......................................................................... 126 4.6.2 Earnings, savings and costs .................................................................................. 133 4.6.3 Working conditions .............................................................................................. 138 4.6.4 Health conditions and medical care .................................................................... 139 4.6.5 Possessions .......................................................................................................... 140 4.6.6 Residential area and physical conditions of the house ........................................ 142 4.7 Group three: Structure of the family ........................................................................... 145 4.7.1 Household data .................................................................................................... 146 4.7.2 Intra-household dynamics; decisions and permissions ....................................... 151 4.8 Group fours: Social relations and networks ................................................................. 155 4.8.1 Ties with Afghanistan; social and financial relations ........................................... 155 4.8.2 Networks in Iran; daily activities and entertainment options ............................. 158 4.8.2.1 Entertainment options ................................................................................. 159 4.8.2.2 Relations and social networks ...................................................................... 160 4.8.2.3 Interests and wishes .................................................................................... 162 4.8.3 Sources of information ........................................................................................ 164 4.9 Appearance and treatment by Iranians ....................................................................... 166 4.10 Group five: Risk awareness and preparedness ............................................................ 169 4.11 Summary of the chapter .............................................................................................. 171 iv 5 Chapter five: Theoretical analysis and discucssions ........................................................... 173 5.1 Iran as a host country; context of reception................................................................ 174 5.1.1 Context of reception; impacts of Iran’s migration policies .................................. 180 5.1.2 Context of reception; relations with host society................................................ 182 5.2 Daily life conditions for Afghans .................................................................................. 184 5.2.1 Migration flows; patterns and consequences...................................................... 186 5.2.2 Intra-household dynamics and inter-generational differences ........................... 188 5.2.2.1 structure of the household; impacts on Afghan women and girls .............. 191 5.3 Settlement patterns; labor market integration ........................................................... 193 5.3.1.1 Labor market integration of Afghan women and girls ................................