ERRATA HARTSARI page 3, Iine 3 replace 'lake' with 'the lake region' page 6, Ine22 replace 'west coast' with 'the west coast' page 10,Ine2l replace 'linguistic economy' with 'the linguistic ecology' page 11line 13 replace 'sung poeúc duels' with 'poetic song duels' page I2hne2l replace 'cultural which' with 'cultural ærm which' page L4line 20 replace 'subject' with 'a subject' page 19 hne22 replace 'the which is replacing it language' with 'the lañguage which is replacing it' page2}line 3 replace 'see Dixon' with (see Dixon 1992) page23line 5 replace 'cannot avoided' with 'cannot be avoided' 'by page 30lines 15 & 16 replace 'to do this so that I was able' with doing this I was able' 'Indonesian as page3T line 18 replace 'Indonesia the national language' with the national language' page 40line 8 replace 'to those whom' with 'to those with whom' page42line 10 replace 'a marker group identity' with ' a marker of group idenúty page 461ine 16 replace 'the use language' with 'the use of language' page 46hne22 replace 'in practical sense' with 'in a pracúcal sense' page 47 line 20 replace 'he wrote' with 'where he wrote' 'the page 521tne2I replace 'the number native speakers' with number of native speakers' page 61 line 11 replace 'their terms' with 'their corresponding tetms' 'languages need page 63lines 15 & 16 replace 'languages .... communicated' with toèxpress añd cbmmunicate the new values' page 63line 23 replace 'the same extent' with 'to the same extent' to the page 64line 1 replace 'the enrichment of with 'its contribuúon en¡ichment ofl pageTZline 7 replace 'vowel phonemes number' with 'consonant phonemes are seen in a number' page I23line 14 replace 'foodstuffs, a person' with 'foodstuffs which a person' page 126line 4 replace'melengkan' with'mclenhkan' (italics) page 136line 10 replace 'is similar its use' with 'is simila¡ to its use' page l4l lines 21 and22 fgpþcg'sebuku' and 'didong' with 'sebuku' and'didong' (italics) page 742line 18 replace 'in each these' with 'in each of these' page I52line 20 replace 'which can be examined' with 'which ca¡r be examined' page 158line 3 Jeplace 'of rested lexical loss was the orally' with 'of lexical loss were tested orally' page 159lne2 insert 'from Dutch' after 'tante' page 159line 4 replace 'Gayo terms mother's' with 'Gayo terms for mother's' page 161 line 18 insert '(sic)' after 'good man' page 166line 13 replace 'we shy' with 'we are shy' page IT5line 7 replace 'in every speech' with 'in almost every speech' page 196 lne2 replace'mu-','me-'r'men-' with'mlr-' r'me-','men-' line 3 replace'te-','ter-','be-','ber-' with'te-','ter-','be-,,'ber-' line 4 replace 'lagu oya', 'lagu-lagu oya' with 'Iagu oya', 'lagu-Iagu oya' line 5 replace 'benenomen', 'nome benenomen' with- 'benei.omeñ', ,no*" benenotnen' line 7 replace 'pada hari serlo ni' with 'padn hari serlo ni' page 196line 16 replace 'balances out effect' with 'balances out the effect' page 198line 16 replace 'the result that' with 'with the result that' page l99line 4 insert'vernacular' before'literacy' page 199 line 5 replace 'the mother tongue' with 'to ensure that the mother tongue' >..8 {ì a OF SUMATRA IN ASPEC F LANGUAGE CHANGE IN GAYO' A LANGUAGE INDONESIA By Hartisari for the Award of a Thesis submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements MASTER OF ARTS IN LINGUISTICS (by research) SuPervisor: Professor Peter Mifülhäuler tM.A. (Oxon), M. Phil.' Ph. D.' F'A'S'S'A' l The Department of Linguistics Faculty of Arts The UniversitY of Adelaide SOUTH AUSTRALIA (re97\ ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Peter Mühlhäuslegfor guiding me through research and writing the thesis. I would also like to thank to the Australian Agency for International Development for a teaching scholarship. My thanks go to the Department of Linguistics, Faculty of Arts, Adelaide University for providing ofhce space and facilities. In writing the thesis, I have benefîted from the help of Mr Rob Amery of the Linguistic Department for his useful comments and suggestions. Similarly, my sincere thanks to Mrs Jackie Mühlhäusler for her fine editing and indexing to smooth out my language for the publication of this work, and my friend Gordon Tattersall for his computing talents. Special thanks go to the overseas student advisers, Vivian Hope and Maria Nichærlein for their advice and support in my difhcult situations throughout the of study. It is also a pleasure to thank all informants in Takengon, and my friends at Adelaide University and in Residential Wing (RAH) for their moral support. I DECLARATION The work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other teniary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. I give consent to this copy of my thesis, when deposited in the University Library, being available for loan and photocopying. February, 1997 11 ABSTRACT This thesis documents the process of language change which is taking place in Takengon, located in middle Aceh, region of Sumatra (Western Indonesia). A key historical event appears central as a cause of language change - contact with Malay (now Bahasa Indonesia) has exercised a. gteat deal of i¡fluence in this language. The strong influence of Bahasa Indonesia has reduced little by little the role of this language in the Gayo community, and the impact of development and modernisation of Indonesia can be felt in this community too. BesidesrArabic also plays an important role in this process, especially in the domain of Islamic ûeaching. The present research examines language usage. Observation and recording of language in a variety of settings provided evidence that change is occurring. The results indicate that many traditional lexical items have been replaced by the new items, the set of kin terms has undergone dramatic changes, the traditional basic values have shifæd to modem ones in many domainsJhere are also a number of changes at the grammatical level. The resultgof an investigation of the attitudes of different age-groups of speakers toward the Gayo suggest that feelings toward this language remain generally very positive. There are a number of signs of shift: proficiency in Bahasa Indonesia is increasing; younger people tend to speak Indonesia2which they regard as the prestigious language for modern people. However, few speakers of Gayo seem to be aware of the dangers of language loss. u1 TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgement I Declaration u Abstract ut CHAPTER T 1.1. Introduction. 1 I.2. Gayo Population.. 5 1.3 Historical Contact. 6 1.4 The People and Langua9e............ 12 1.5 Language Change and Modernisation..... 15 1.6 Methodology........ 29 CHAPTER tr 2.1 Bahasa Indonesia and Its Position. 32 2.2 Regional or Vernacular Languages and Its Position.. 54 CHAPTER Itr 3.1Phonology. 65 3.1.1 Vowels 65 3.1.2 Consonants. 69 3.2 V/ord Classes and Morphology........ 77 3.2.1 \Mord Classes- 77 3.2.1.I Nouns...... 78 3 -2.I.2 Personal Pronouns 80 lV 85 3.2.2.1 Intransitive Verbs.. 86 3.2.2 -2 Transitive Verbs 88 3.2.3 Deictics............. 90 3-2.4 Adverbs and Preposition and Conjunction......... 9t 3.3 Syntax. 92 3.3.1 Phrases. 92 3.3.1.1 Noun Phrases 92 3.3.1.1.1 General Noun Phrases. 92 3.3. 1. 1.2 Possessive Noun Phrases. 95 3.3.I-L.3 Coordinate Noun Phrases 96 3.3.7.1.4 Complex Noun Phrases... 96 3.3.1.2 Verb Phrases.. 97 3.3.2 Sentences 100 3.3.2.1 Simple SEntences. 100 3.3.2-1. 1 Declarative Sentences.. 101 3.3.2.1.2 Imperative Sentences t02 3 -3.2.I -3 Interro gative Sentences r02 3.3.2.2 Complex Sentences. 105 3.3.2.3 Compound Sentences 106 r07 3.4. 1 Kinship Terms.... 109 3.4.2 Housing... 119 3.4.3 Special Languages t2t CIIAPTER IV 4.1 Language Contact and Language(!ange.. r27 4-2The Use of Gayo in Takengon Today.... r29 4.3 Attitudes to Gayo and Indonesian r40 4.4 Process of Change in Gayo.. r44 4.4. 1 Phonic Interference. 145 v 4.4.2 Gr ammatical Interference............. t52 4 -4.3 Lexical Interference............ 155 CIIAPTER V 5.1 Language Change and Culture. 161 5.2Language Use and Attitude Survey... 177 5.2.1Method t78 5.2.2 Results and Discussion 180 CHAPTER VI 6.l Conclusion 193 6.2 Recommendation 198 REFERENCE.. 200 Appendix One : Questionnaires in English Version............. 2tr Appendix Two : Questionnaires in Gayo Version..... 2t6 Appendix Three : Questionnaires in Indonesian Version........ 22r Appendix Four : Result of Questionnaire....... 227 Appendix Five : Picture of the Informants 239 Appendix Six : Indonesian Writing Dominating Public Domain.... 240 Appendix Seven : Indonesian and Gayo Speech Dominating Public Domain..... 242 Appendix Eight : Sample of Gayo - Indonesian Invitation .-..........-- 244 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE r.1. ACEH PROVINCE SHOV/ING TIIE GAYO HIGHLANDS (BOrMEl.[)......... 2 FTGURE 1.2. REGTONS OF TIIE GAYO HTGnANDS (BOWET{)...... 3 FIGURE 3.1 RELAÏVES IN SAMEAND ASCENDING GENERATIONS 111 FIGURE 3.2 AFFINAI RELATVES, FEMALE EGO rt2 FIGURE 3.3 AFFINAL RELA TIvEs/MALE EGO 113 r19 F]GURE 3.5 PLAN OF JOINED LOW HOUS8........ 120 vl Chapter 1 1.1 Introduction As Gayo, a vernacular language in Indonesia, is not widely known, it seems to be proper to begin with a brief description of Indonesia and Gayo. Indonesia is an island republic made up of more than 3,000 islands lying berù/een the continents of Asia and Australia.