| DPP16~1! 445 1021 02013004 11:40 am REVISED PROOF | Development and Psychopathology 16 ~2004!, 157–177 Copyright © 2004 Cambridge University Press Printed in the United States of America DOI: 10.10170S0954579404044451 The expression and understanding of jealousy in children with autism NIRIT BAUMINGER Bar-Ilan University Abstract We investigated the expression and understanding of jealousy in 16 high-functioning children with autism and 17 typically developing children matched for IQ, chronological age, gender, and maternal education. We examined the expression of jealousy via children’s behaviors, verbalizations, and affects demonstrated during two jealousy-provoking triadic scenarios ~drawing and playing! enacted among the child in the experimental group ~autism or typical!, that child’s main caregiver ~mostly mothers!, and a familiar peer or sibling. The two scenarios corresponded with the two types of jealousy described in past studies: social-comparison jealousy ~drawing scenario! and social-relational jealousy ~playing scenario!. To tap children’s understanding, we asked them to identify jealousy from a picture, to provide examples of times they felt jealous, and to offer suggestions for coping with jealousy. The main results revealed that children with autism expressed jealousy in situations similar to their typical age mates but manifested it in different behaviors. Moreover, children with autism revealed a less coherent understanding of the feeling. We discuss the meaning of the gap between demonstrating and understanding jealousy in light of the two central theoretical views conceptualizing the core emotional deficit in children with autism. Jealousy is a complex, unpleasant feeling that ship with a significant other ~Hansen, 1991; is highly dependent on social context and the Parrott, 1991!. ability to make spontaneous comparisons Although researchers have often examined ~Izard, 1991; Miller, Volling, & McElwain, jealousy ~mainly romantic jealousy! in adults, 2000!. By definition, an individual experi- much less work has focused on childhood jeal- ences jealousy when a potential threat exists ousy. One issue that complicates the study of that a valued relationship will be lost to a jealousy ~like other complex emotions such as rival ~Izard, 1991; Parrott, 1991; Salovey & embarrassment or pride! concerns the vague- Rothman, 1991!. Thus, jealousy primarily ap- ness of the facial indices related to jealousy, pears in triadic contexts involving the jealous which precludes identification of jealousy individual, the rival, and the valued relation- based solely on facial expression. Researchers tend to agree that the affective expression of jealousy comprises a composite of several emo- The Internal Grants Program of Bar-Ilan University sup- tions ~e.g., fear, frustration, sadness, anger!; ported this research. The author extends special thanks to however, agreement is lacking about the spe- the children and families who were willing to take part in this study and expresses her appreciation to Dee B. Ankon- cific emotional components that constitute jeal- ina for her editorial contribution and to Dov Har-Even for ousy ~Arnold, 1960; Hupka, 1984; Izrad, 1991; his statistical assistance. The author would also like to Parrott, 1991!. Because of this unreliability of thank Galit Halevy–Tendler for her inspiring remarks, Cory facial indices associated with jealousy, re- Shulman for her help in data collection, and the four anon- searchers believe its manifestation is orga- ymous reviewers for their thought-provoking comments. Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Nirit nized in a script-based pattern rather than as a Bauminger, School of Education, Bar-Ilan University, simple blend of basic level emotions. There- Ramat-Gan 52900, Israel; E-mail: [email protected]. fore, studies have focused on the identifica- 157 | DPP16~1! 445 2021 02013004 11:40 am REVISED PROOF | 158 N. Bauminger tion of situations that provoke jealousy in child’s superiority or equality ~Bers & Rodin, children and on the detection of behaviors and 1984; Masciuch & Kienapple, 1993; Miller action components that indicate jealousy in et al., 2000!. these situations ~Masciuch & Kienapple, 1993!. Distinct behaviors and actions have been When considering situations that provoke identified as indices of jealousy among chil- jealousy, another issue to be taken into ac- dren of different ages. In infancy through count constitutes the obscurity of the distinc- preschool, children in both types of jealousy- tion between jealousy and envy ~Parrott, 1991!. provoking situations ~social comparison and Jealousy always involves a triadic situation in social relations! evidence behaviors such as which the child’s own loss equals the rival’s gazing directly at their main caregiver ~moth- gain, and it involves complex projections about ers and0or fathers! and0or the other child, the self in regard to others. In contrast, envy discontinuing work and focusing attention on may involve only two-person situations, and the triad, frowning, making attempts to inter- this feeling comprises the wish to have an- fere with or enter into the rival interaction other person’s possession or success and0or using attention-provoking behaviors, taking the wish that the other person did not possess the other child’s objects, hugging or climbing this desired characteristic or object ~Parrott, on the main caregiver, answering questions 1991!. According to these definitions, the ma- that were addressed to the other child, attempt- jor differentiation between the two feelings ing to correct the other child, or trying to consists of jealousy’s necessary loss of a rela- change the situation by complaining ~Masci- tionship within a triadic situation, whereas envy uch & Kienapple, 1993; Miller et al., 2000!. does not require this loss. Furthermore, Par- As children reach school age, other behaviors rott and Smith ~1993! have suggested that in also emerge, such as comparing oneself to envy one’s own appraisal leads to dissatisfac- the other child, expressing a desire for the tion with oneself whereas in jealousy the re- object or relations, attempting to protect one- flected appraisal or attention of another leads self from being demeaned, behaving nega- to a lack of security and confidence. However, tively or making negative comments toward complicating the differentiation is that in jeal- another person or about oneself, and attempt- ousy the perceived threat may not necessarily ing to do at least as well as ~equalization! or involve the loss of love, and the child may better than ~competition! the rival ~Bers & experience jealousy related to the significant Rodin, 1984!. It should be noted that preado- other’s appreciation of the rival’s higher suc- lescents and adolescents, in particular, are so- cess ~Parrott, 1991!. Moreover, both jealousy cialized to show their anger, distress, fear, or and envy are concerned with losses of self- anxiety more indirectly through more subtle esteem stemming from social comparison, behaviors rather than direct actions or ex- demonstrate similar behavioral manifesta- plicit facial expressions ~Blumberg & Izard, tions, and may co-occur in the same situations 1991; Harris, 1989!. Thus, children’s capac- ~Bers & Rodin, 1984; Parrott, 1991; Salovey ity for spontaneous comparisons ~which al- & Rodin, 1984; Silver & Sabini, 1978!. lows for jealousy! increases with age, whereas In an attempt to better differentiate jeal- their overall explicit negative affect associ- ousy from envy in children, investigators de- ated with jealousy diminishes with age ~Bers vised two different situations within a social & Rodin, 1984!. triad to distinctly elicit jealousy. One focuses Wide consensus exists that emotional dif- on the child’s loss of love and0or attention, ficulties comprise one of the chief character- which is social-relations jealousy. The other istics of the autism syndrome, manifesting focuses on the child’s loss of admiration be- themselves in both the expression and under- cause of another child’s higher success, which standing of emotion. However, the affective is social-comparison jealousy. Situations of versus cognitive nature of these difficulties re- social-relations jealousy challenge one’s ex- mains ambiguous ~Happé, 1994; Hobson, clusivity in a relationship, whereas situations 1993a; Travis & Sigman, 1998!. Although an of social-comparison jealousy challenge the extensive body of research has investigated | DPP16~1! 445 3021 02013004 11:40 am REVISED PROOF | Jealousy in autism 159 simple emotions such as happiness, sadness, more, conceptualization of a rival relation- fear, and anger ~see review in Dissanayake & ship seems to call for an understanding or Sigman, 2001!, few studies have focused on beliefs regarding the quality of the interper- the understanding of complex, self-conscious sonal relations between the jealous individ- emotions such as pride, embarrassment, and ual and a significant other ~i.e., mother!,as guilt ~e.g., Capps, Yirmiya, & Sigman, 1992; well as the understanding of the interpersonal Kasari, Chamberlain, & Bauminger, 2001; relationship between the significant other and Yirmiya, Sigman, Kasari, & Mundy, 1992! or a rival ~i.e., peer or sibling!. Thus, jealousy on the behavioral manifestations and expres- appears to require inferences regarding a net- sions of such emotions ~e.g., Dawson & Mc- work of interpersonal relationships involving Kissick, 1984; Kasari, Sigman, Baumgartner, the self and others ~Volling, McElwain,