THE DOUBLE BIND: THE POLITICS OF RACIAL & CLASS INEQUALITIES IN THE AMERICAS Report of the Task Force on Racial and Social Class Inequalities in the Americas Edited by Juliet Hooker and Alvin B. Tillery, Jr. September 2016 American Political Science Association Washington, DC Full report available online at http://www.apsanet.org/inequalities Cover Design: Steven M. Eson Interior Layout: Drew Meadows Copyright ©2016 by the American Political Science Association 1527 New Hampshire Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20036 All rights reserved. ISBN 978-1-878147-41-7 (Executive Summary) ISBN 978-1-878147-42-4 (Full Report) Task Force Members Rodney E. Hero, University of California, Berkeley Juliet Hooker, University of Texas, Austin Alvin B. Tillery, Jr., Northwestern University Melina Altamirano, Duke University Keith Banting, Queen’s University Michael C. Dawson, University of Chicago Megan Ming Francis, University of Washington Paul Frymer, Princeton University Zoltan L. Hajnal, University of California, San Diego Mala Htun, University of New Mexico Vincent Hutchings, University of Michigan Michael Jones-Correa, University of Pennsylvania Jane Junn, University of Southern California Taeku Lee, University of California, Berkeley Mara Loveman, University of California, Berkeley Raúl Madrid, University of Texas at Austin Tianna S. Paschel, University of California, Berkeley Paul Pierson, University of California, Berkeley Joe Soss, University of Minnesota Debra Thompson, Northwestern University Guillermo Trejo, University of Notre Dame Jessica L. Trounstine, University of California, Merced Sophia Jordán Wallace, University of Washington Dorian Warren, Roosevelt Institute Vesla Weaver, Yale University Table of Contents Executive Summary The Double Bind: The Politics of Racial and Class Inequalities in the Americas . xi Juliet Hooker, University of Texas, Austin Alvin B . Tillery, Jr ., Northwestern University Foreword . .1 Rodney Hero, University of California, Berkeley 1 The Mexican Color Hierarchy: How Race and Skin Tone Still Define Life Chances 200 Years after Independence . 3 Guillermo Trejo, University of Notre Dame Melina Altamirano, Duke University 2 Black Blues: The Persistence of Racialized Economic Inequality in Black Communities . .17 Michael C . Dawson, University of Chicago Megan Ming Francis, University of Washington 3 Asians in the Americas . .27 Jane Junn, University of Southern California Taeku Lee, University of California, Berkeley 4 Emergence of an Organized Politics of Race in Latin America . .35 Mala Htun, University of New Mexico 5 New Data, New Knowledge, New Politics: Race, Color, and Class Inequality in Latin America . .47 Mara Loveman, University of California, Berkeley 6 Beyond Race or Class: Entangled Inequalities in Latin America . .57 Tianna S . Paschel, University of California, Berkeley 7 Learning from Ferguson: Welfare, Criminal Justice, and the Political Science of Race and Class . 73 Joe Soss, University of Minnesota Vesla Weaver, Yale University 8 The Puzzling Persistence of Racial Inequality in Canada . 101 Keith Banting, Queen’s University Debra Thompson, Northwestern University 9 Inequality in Black and White: Public Opinion and Inequality in the United States . .123 Vincent Hutchings, University of Michigan 10 Experiencing Inequality but Not Seeing Class: An Examination of Latino Political Attitudes . .129 Michael Jones-Correa, University of Pennsylvania Sophia Jordán Wallace, University of Washington 11 Race and Class Inequality in Local Politics . .139 Zoltan L . Hajnal, University of California, San Diego Jessica L . Trounstine, University of California, San Diego 12 Indigenous Voters and the Rise of the Left in Latin America . 157 Raúl Madrid, University of Texas at Austin 13 Race, Partisanship, and the Rise of Income Inequality in the United States . .167 Paul Pierson, University of California, Berkeley vi The Double Bind Tables and Figures FIGURES Executive Summary Appendix I: North and South America (Courtesy of University of Texas Libraries) . xxiii Chapter 1 Figure 1: Mexico as a Society Ranked by Class and Ethnicity . 6 Figure 2: Unpacking the Mestizo Category by Skin Tone . .7 Figure 3: Perceived Racial Discrimination and Skin Tone in Mexico . .9 Figure 4: Economic Well-Being and Skin Tone in Mexico . .10 Figure 5: Access to Water and Skin Tone in Mexico . .11 Figure 6: Educational Attainment and Skin Tone in Mexico . .12 Chapter 3 Figure 1: Percentage without a 2- or 4-Year College Degree . .29 Figure 2: Poverty Rates in California . .29 Figure 3: Percentage without Health Insurance . .29 Figure 4: Asians Age 18–21 and Elite College Enrollment Trends, 1990–2011 . 31 Figure 5: Turnout as Percentage of Voter Eligible Population . .32 Figure 6: Percentage Not Registered Due to “Difficulty with English” . .32 Figure 7: “Over the past 12 months, were you contacted by anyone … to register or to vote in this year’s election?” . .33 Chapter 4 Figure 1: 2010 Lower House Ballot, Province of Cauca . 42 Chapter 5 Figure 1: Questions about Race, Color, or Ethnicity in Latin American Censuses, 1980–2010s . .48 Figure 2: Percent of Respondents Indigenous or with Indigenous Ancestry Using Various Criteria, Peru . .50 Figure 3: Percent Afro-descendant according to Various Criteria, Brazil . 50 Figure 4: Percent Classified as Indigenous Based on Language Proficiency and Proxy Self-Identification by Age Group, Mexico . 51 Figure 5: Inequality in Income by Skin Color and Categorical Race across the Americas . .52 Figure 6: Mean Years of Education by Skin Color in Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru . .53 Figure 7: Mean Years of Education by Ethnoracial Self-Identification in Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru . 53 Chapter 6 Figure 1: Spatial Distribution of Afro-Colombian Population by Department (State) . .58 Figure 2: Spatial Distribution of Brazilian Population by Color (Percentage Black or Brown) . .59 Chapter 8 Figure 1: Inequality by Income Type, 1976–2010 . .104 Figure 2: Top 1% Income Shares in Canada, 1920–2011 . .104 Chapter 9 Figure 1: Mean Levels of Support for Governmental Efforts to Reduce Income Inequality by Race .126 Figure 2: Mean Levels of Link Fate Attitudes among African Americans by Year . 126 Figure 3: Mean Levels of Racial Group Importance by Race . .127 Chapter 10 Figure 1: Median Wealth by Race and Education (2013) . 130 Figures 2a–2c: Substantive Effects on Class Identification by Race (ANES 2008) . .134 Figure 3a–3c: Substantive Effects on Class Identification by Race (ANES 2012) . 134 Figure 4: Class Identification by Racial Group (ANES) . 135 Chapter 11 Figure 1: Skew in the Local Electorate . .140 Figure 2: Inequities in Resident Satisfaction . .144 Figure 3: Turnout and Minority Representation . 146 Figure 4: Turnout and Spending . .147 Figure 5: Local Policymaking and Racial Differences in Government Approval . .148 Figure 6: Contact by Parties and Candidates . .149 Chapter 12 Figure 1: Vote for Leftist Parties in Bolivia, 1993–2009 . .158 Figure 2: Vote for Leftist Parties in Ecuador, 1992–2013 . 159 Figure 3: Vote for Leftist Parties in Peru, 1990–2011 . .160 viii The Double Bind TABLES Chapter 1 Table 1: Experiences of Discrimination in Mexico . .6 Table 2: Determinants of Perceived Racial Discrimination . 8 Table 3: Determinants of Economic Well-Being . .10 Table 4: Determinants of Having Access to Water . .11 Table 5: Determinants of Years of Education . .12 Table 6: Determinants of Being a Target of Clientelism . 14 Chapter 2 Table 1: Belief in Linked Fate by Income Level (Weighted) . .24 Table 2: Belief in Linked Fate by Educational Attainment (Weighted) . .24 Chapter 4 Table 1: Ethnic identification in Bolivia . .38 Chapter 6 Table 1: Ethno-Racial Legislation in Latin American Countries . .61 Chapter 8 Table 1: Poverty, Inequality and Redistribution: Select OECD Countries, 2011 . .105 Table 2: Racial Minorities in Canada: Education and Earnings by Generation, Ages 25–34 . .105 Table 3: Earnings Gap: Second-Plus Generations Racial Minorities and Aboriginals, Compared to British-Origin Workers, 2005 . .106 Table 4: Total Public Social Expenditures as Percentage of GDP . .108 Table 5: Poverty Rates: Immigrants and Canadian-Born (%) . 109 Chapter 9 Table 1: The Impact of Attitudes on Class, Race, and Ethnic Equality on Egalitarianism . .124 Table 2: The Impact of Support for Aid to Blacks and Immigration Attitudes on Support for Reducing Income Inequality . .125 Chapter 10 Table 1: Identification with Class, Logit Analysis . .133 The Double Bind ix Chapter 11 Table 1: Racial, Demographic, and Political Divisions in Urban Elections . .141 Table 2: Racial Divisions in Urban Politics . .141 Table 3: Who Wins the Local Vote . 142 Table 4: City Council Representation . .143 x The Double Bind Executive Summary The Double Bind: The Politics of Racial and Class Inequalities in the Americas Juliet Hooker, University of Texas, Austin Alvin B . Tillery, Jr ., Northwestern University his report summarizes the work of the status and legal rights, widespread disparities remain American Political Science Association’s on most indicators of socioeconomic wellbeing, service Presidential Task Force on Racial and provision, basic safety, and political influence along racial, Class Inequalities in the Americas . ethnic, and class lines . The chapters in this report document The main goal of the task force was to these gaps and explore the causes of their persistence . investigate the relationship between race The work of the task force unfolded in a period in which and class in producing