David Weinstein Avihu Zakai EXILE AND INTERPRETATION: REINVENTING EUROPEAN INTELLECTUAL HISTORY IN THE AGE OF GERMAN TYRANNY AND BARBARISM (Or “How German-Speaking Jewish Intellectual Exiles – Hans Baron, Karl Popper, Leo Strauss, Erich Auerbach – Transformed Modern Intellectual History”) 2 ABSTRACT Introduction: Exile, Confrontation and Interpretation ……….……..……………………. 5 Our Introduction sets out some of our study’s main themes (exile, Jewish identity, hermeneutics, intellectual crises in Germany and Austria in the 1930s and scholarly combat). It also addresses some vexing philosophical problems of textual interpretation raised by our study. I. Hans Baron: Humanism and Republican Liberty in an Age of Tyranny and Barbarism …………………………………………………………………...……. 8 In this chapter, we inquire how the crisis of German ideology -- the triumph of völkish ideology - - contributed to the making of Baron’s seminal The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance, to his invention of the concept “civic humanism” and how a deep sense of general crisis pervaded his historical thought overall. II. Karl Popper and the Re-Invention of the History of Political Thought .………………. 94 Our chapter on Popper shows how he also joined idiosyncratic history of political thought and unusual hermeneutics to battle historicism of a different kind, which he likewise claimed helped cause fascism. III. Leo Strauss: The Exile of Interpretation …………………………………………..… 154 This chapter explores how Strauss combined idiosyncratic history of political thought with idiosyncratic hermeneutics to oppose historicism, which he claimed Machiavelli and Hobbes invented, the German Historical School perfected and fascism appropriated. IV. Erich Auerbach and the Crisis of German Philology: An Apology for the Western Judaeo-Christian Humanist Tradition in an Age of Peril, Tyranny, and Barbarism …………………………………………………………………………. 218 This chapter analyzes the great philologist’s works and life of the mind in the wide ideological, philological, and historical context of his time. Auerbach’s struggle as a humanist philologist is examined against the völkisch, chauvinist, racist, and anti-Semitic premises of Aryan philology, which eliminated the Hebrew Bible, or Old Testament, from German culture in particular and Western culture and civilization in general. He constructed his apology for, or justification of, the Western Judaeo-Christian humanist tradition at its gravest existential moment. V. Conclusion: Jewish Identity and Historical Imagination ……………………..…… 331 Our concluding chapter reiterates our study’s main conclusions, including especially our conviction that the seminal works of these prominent German-speaking intellectuals cannot possibly be understood properly without setting them in the interlocking contexts of anti- Semitism, anti-historicism and polemical combat against fascism. 3 CONTENTS Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... 2 Introduction: Exile, Confrontation and Interpretation .......................................................... 5 I. Hans Baron: Humanism and Republican Liberty in an Age of Tyranny and Barbarism ……………………………………………………………….…………. 8 Introduction …………………………………………….………..…………...............…. 9 Hedgehogs and Foxes: Baron and the Early Italian Renaissance .……...………….…. 19 Life and Study in Weimar Germany ………………………………………………….. 27 An Epiphany at Florence – The Discovery of ‘Civic Humanism’ ……..……….……... 48 Exile …………………………………………………………………………………… 62 Exile and Interpretation: The Making of The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance …………………………………………………………………… 76 Epilogue …………………………………………………………………………….…. 88 II. Karl Popper and the Re-Invention of the History of Political Thought …………..…… 94 Introduction ….…………………………………………………………………........... 94 Fighting Fascism and the Power of Ideas …………..…………………………...….… 95 Ambivalence and Assimilation ………………………………………..……….…....… 98 Being a Jew and Being of Jewish Origin ……………………………………….…...... 104 Historicism and Totalitarianism: Arguing ‘From the Concentration Camp’ .…...…… 107 Critical Rationalism and Critical Interpretation …………………………………....... 115 Plato ………………………………………………………………………………..... 126 Hegel and Marx …………….………..……………………………..…………….…. 135 Ideology and Anachronism …………………………………………………………... 141 Popper and Berlin …………………………………………………………………… 143 Conclusion ……………….………………………………………………………….. 151 III. Leo Strauss: The Exile of Interpretation ……….………………….……………….... 154 Introduction …………………….……………………………………………….…… 154 Crisis and the Cave of Historicism ………………………….…….………………… 158 ‘Natural Understanding’ ……………………………………….….………………… 166 Reading Exactly .................................................................................................. 172 Interpreting Hobbes in the 1930s ……………………………………………………. 176 The Poison Pill of Hobbes ………………………………………………………..…. 190 Atheism With a “Good Conscience” ……………………………………….……….. 194 “Platonic” Liberalism …………………………………………………………….…. 199 Philosophical History, Exegetical Magic and the Continuing Crisis of Modernity …. 207 Reading Exactly, Textual Autonomy and the Crisis of Modernity ………………... 210 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………….. 215 4 IV. Erich Auerbach and the Crisis of German Philology: An Apology for the Western Judaeo-Christian Humanist Tradition in an Age of Peril, Tyranny, and Barbarism ….………………………………………………..….…. 218 Abstract …………………………………….…………………………………….… 218 Preface ……………………………………………..…………………………….…. 219 Philology and Humanism ……………………………….……………………….…. 222 Philology and History …………………………………………..…………………... 231 Philology and Ideology ………………………………………………..………….… 239 Erich Auerbach: Life, Time, and Works ……………………………………..……... 244 The Crisis of German Philology: Aryan Philology and the Elimination of the Old Testament ……………………………………………………….. 254 Exile and Interpretation: The Struggle against Aryan Philology and Nazi Barbarism ……………………………………………….…………….. 273 Epiphany in Istanbul ………………………………………………………… 279 Philology, Teleology, and Historicist Humanism ……………………..…… 287 Mimesis – An Apology for Western Judaeo-Christian Humanist Tradition in an Age of Peril, Tyranny and Barbarism ……………………… 294 The Real, Geist, and History ……………………………….………………… 296 Mimesis: Form and Content ……………………………………………..…… 304 Mimesis: Method and Approach ……………………………………..……… 314 Epilogue: Exile, Interpretation and Alienation ………………………………..……. 321 Conclusion: Jewish Identity and Historical Imagination …………………………..…..… 331 5 INTRODUCTION Exile and Interpretation contextualizes ideologically and politically Hans Baron, Erich Auerbach, Leo Strauss and Karl Popper’s scholarship. These German-speaking Jewish intellectuals, who are not normally considered together, fled continental Europe with the rise of Nazism in the 1930s. For each, the political calamity of European fascism was simultaneously a profound intellectual crisis. We choose these four refugee intellectuals not only because of their shared existential experience as exiled Jews, but, most importantly, because they exemplify how scholarship was often used polemically in the 1930s and 1940s to fight Nazism and fascism. We especially want to show how scholarship of an arcane character was enlisted in this struggle. We want to complement work that has been done, for instance, on Jacob Talmon or Hannah Arendt whose polemical intentions are more obvious or more well-known. Auerbach fought fascism through his rejection of Aryan philology, Baron by his repudiation of völkisch ideology of history, Strauss via his polemic against Hobbes’s historicism as the source of modern German political nihilism and Popper by attacking Plato’s metaphysical “essentialism” and historicism as the philosophical origin of fascism. Our four exiles also radically transformed their respective fields of scholarly expertise. In philology, Auerbach invented the field of comparative literature with his book Mimesis. In history, Baron’s The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance led to the creation of the Atlantic Republican tradition of historiography. In the history of political thought, Strauss’s Natural Right and History and Popper’s The Open Society and Its Enemies transformed post-WWII political philosophy’s canon by controversially renarrating it as decline and deterioration rather than advancing enlightenment. Hans Baron (1900-1988) claimed in his celebrated work, The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance, 1955, that “The method of interpreting great turning-points in the history of thought against their social or political background has yet not rendered its full service in the study of the Italian Renaissance.” In our chapter, “Hans Baron: Humanism and Republican Liberty in an Age of Tyranny and Barbarism,” we claim that the method of interpreting great turning-points in the life and mind of this prominent historian of political thought against his social and political background renders important results regarding properly understanding Baron’s magnum opus and its unique mode of historical thought, namely the view that history progresses through a series of major crises. Our goal therefore is to trace the development of Baron’s historical thought and imagination. During his life, two world wars and two German revolutions took place – the revolution of 1918- 1919, which led to the creation of the Weimar Republic, and the Nazi revolution of 1933, which ushered in the establishment of the Third Reich. His was the “Age of Catastrophe” as Eric Hobsbawm termed the years from the First World