THE OTTOMAN WAQF BUILT HERITAGE IN CYPRUS: TRANSITIONS IN THE UPKEEP AND CONSERVATION PRACTICES DURING THE BRITISH COLONIAL ERA (1878 to 1960) A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of PhD In the Faculty of Humanities 2013 Reyhan Sabri School of Environment, Education and Development ARCHITECTURE Table of Contents Table of Contents 2 List of Tables 7 List of Figures 7 List of Abbreviations 11 Abstract 12 Declaration 13 Copyright Statement 13 Acknowledgements 14 Dedication 16 Chapter 1 Introduction 17 1.1 Waqf and Its Role in Shaping and Protecting the Built Environments in the Islamic World 21 1.1.1 A Gap in the International Architectural Conservation Literature: Waqf’s Traditional Building Upkeep and Maintenance System and Heritage Conservation Practices 22 1.1.2 The State of the Art in Waqf Studies with Special Reference to Heritage Practices 25 1.2 The Ottoman Waqf Institution within the History of Cyprus 29 1.2.1 A Brief History and Chronology of Cyprus 29 1.2.2 The Ottoman Waqf Institution in Cyprus and Its Changing Role in Heritage Conservation Practices during the British Colonial Era (1878 to 1960) 37 1.2.3 Cyprus Waqf Studies in the Context of Built Heritage 41 1.3 The Structure of the Thesis 44 1.4 Conclusion 47 Chapter 2 Research Questions and Methodology 49 2.1 Research Hypothesis and Questions 49 2.2 Research Aims and Objectives 50 2.3 Research Methodology 51 2.3.1 Archives of the Cyprus Evkaf Administration (CEA) in Nicosia 52 2.3.1.1 The SMK Index Cyprus Ottoman Records 54 2.3.1.2 The SMK Index British Era Files 57 2.4 Content Analysis of the Archival Data 59 2.5 Conclusion 60 2 Chapter 3 Waqf in the Classical Ottoman Era and Its Role in the Shaping and Protecting Built Environments 61 3.1 Waqf: Origins and Evolution 62 3.1.1 The Legal Definition and Classification of Waqfs According to their Purpose 63 3.1.2 The Foundational, Administrative and Operational Aspects of Ottoman Waqfs 65 3.2 Waqf’s Role in Shaping the Built Environments and Providing Key Urban Facilities in the City during the Classical Ottoman Era (sixteenth to eighteenth Centuries) 68 3.3 Waqf’s Role in the Protection of the Built Environments during the Classical Ottoman Era (sixteenth to eighteenth Centuries) 70 3.4 The Initiation, Authorization and Implementation of the Upkeep and Maintenance Works on Waqf Built Properties 73 3.5 Understanding the Characteristics of Ottoman Waqf in Cyprus during the Classical Ottoman Era (sixteenth to eighteenth Centuries) 75 3.5.1 Ottoman Waqf in the Shaping of the Built Environment in Cyprus 77 3.5.2 Ottoman Waqf in the Protection of the Built Environment in Cyprus 81 3.6 Conclusion 84 Chapter 4 The Centralisation of Ottoman Waqfs in the Nineteenth Century and the Transitions in the Building Upkeep and Maintenance Procedures 86 4.1 The Centralisation of the Waqfs as Part of the Westernization Attempts of the Ottoman State 87 4.1.1 The Administrative Re-structuring 90 4.1.2 The Revisions of Waqf Legislation during the Centralisation Period and their Implications on the Upkeep and Maintenance Procedures of Waqf built Properties 90 4.2 Waqf Built Properties within the Context of the Ottoman Law of Antiquities 93 4.2 The Centralisation of the Cyprus Waqf Institution during the late- Ottoman era and the Key Changes in the Building Upkeep and Maintenance System 94 4.2.1 Administrative Re-Structuring of Cyprus Waqf Institution during the Centralisation Period (1834-1878) and the State of Waqfs 95 4.2.2 Highlights from the Waqf’s Building Upkeep and Maintenance Procedures in Cyprus during the Centralisation Period (1834 to 1878) and Shifts from the Traditional Practice 98 4.3 The General State of Ottoman Waqf Institution at the Time of the Cyprus Evkaf’s Transfer to the British Colonial Administration in 1878 103 3 4.4 Conclusion 106 Chapter 5 The Genesis and Evolution of Western Heritage Concepts and Modern Conservation Movement: Projections in Cyprus during the British Colonial Period (1878 to 1960) 108 5.1 Origins and Conceptual Frameworks of Heritage 109 5.1.1 National Identities and Nationalised Heritages 111 5.2 Terminology and Definitions 112 5.3 The Modern Architectural Conservation Movement and the Key Conservation Approaches 114 5.4 Architectural Conservation Movement in Britain during the British Colonial Era in Cyprus (1878 to 1960) 118 5.4.1 The Society for Protection of Ancient Buildings (SPAB) and Its Overseas Activities 120 5.4.2 Preservationist Legislation: British Ancient Monument Acts 1882- 1953 122 5.5 Heritage Conceptions and Politics of Cultural Heritage in British Colonial Cyprus 127 5.6 Evolution of Architectural Conservation Understanding at Cyprus during the British Colonial Era (1878 to 1960) and Its Implications on Evkaf’s Heritage Practices 129 5.6.1 The Involvement of the British Societies and Conservation Elites on behalf of Ancient Monuments in Colonial Cyprus 130 5.6.2 The Approach of the Colonial Authorities in Heritage Practices and the Involvement of the Colonial Bureaucracies 134 5.6.3 Preservationist Legislation in British Colonial Cyprus 137 5.7 Conclusion 139 Chapter 6 Cyprus Evkaf in Transition: Colonial Inputs in Waqf’s Traditional Building Upkeep System during the Early British Period (1878 to 1905) 142 6.1 General State of Evkaf during the Early Years of the British Colonial Era 143 6.1.1 Seager’s Report (1883) and Planning for Evkaf’s Future 146 6.1.2 New Procedures Concerning the Upkeep Processes of the Waqf Built Properties during the Early British Colonial Period (1878 to 1882) 149 6.2 The Initiation of Upkeep Works for the Waqf Built Properties 152 6.2.1 The Key Persons Involved in the Initiation of the Upkeep Works for the Waqf Built Properties 154 6.3 Legal, Financial and Administrative Procedures behind the Authorisation of Upkeep Projects and Maintenance Works 158 6.3.1 Legal Aspects 158 6.3.2 Financial Aspects 161 6.3.3 Administrative Aspects 164 4 6.4 Colonial Inputs in the Traditional Technical Planning for the Upkeep Projects and Maintenance Works at the Waqf Built Properties 167 6.4.1 Preparation of Projects’ Specifications and Initial Cost Estimates and the Key Persons Involved 167 6.4.2 Materials, Methods and Techniques of Physical Interventions 172 6.4.3 Professional Consultation for Intervention Methods Regarding Structural Decays and the Key Persons Involved 180 6.4.4 The Genesis of a New Conservation Understanding: Approaching to the Waqf Built Properties within the Perspective of Heritage Concepts 186 6.5 Awarding the Contracts and Implementing the Projects 195 6.5.1 The Implementation of the Upkeep Projects, their Supervision and the Final Submissions 198 6.6 Conclusion 200 Chapter 7 Introduction of Statutory Protection for Ancient Monuments and Transitions in Evkaf’s Building Upkeep System (1905 to 1935) 203 7.1 New Elements in the Initiation of Upkeep Projects and the Key Actors Involved in the Process 205 7.1.1 The Initiation of Upkeep Works and the Conservation Projects by the Evkaf Administration and the Government Officials 208 7.1.1.1 The Initiation of Upkeep Projects for Functional and Religious Requirements 208 7.1.1.2 The Initiation of Conservation Projects for Historic or Architectural Interests 209 7.2 Authorisation Processes 214 7.2.1 The Enactment of the First Antiquities Law in 1905 and Its Implications on the Protection of Waqf Built Heritage 214 7.2.2 The New Legal, Administrative and Financial Arrangements and Evkaf’s Riding in the Realm of Politics 217 7.2.2.1 The Order in Council in 1928 and Evkaf’s Transformation into a Government Branch 220 7.2.2.2 The Administrative and Financial Aspects of the Upkeep Projects of Waqf Built Properties 221 7.3 Technical Planning of Upkeep, Maintenance and Conservation Projects on Waqf Built Properties 224 7.3.1.1 Consultation for Consolidation of Structural Decays and the Key Persons Involved 224 7.3.1.2 Consultation for Architectural Conservation for Waqf Built Properties with Ancient Monument Values and the Key Persons Involved 225 7.3.2 Preparation of the Specifications and the Cost Estimates and the Awarding of the Contracts 234 7.4 Conclusion 237 Chapter 8 Procedural Changes and Colonial Heritage Politics: Evkaf’s Selective Conservation Practices between 1935 and 1960 240 5 8.1 The Initiation Process and the Key Actors in Initiation of Conservation Projects 242 8.1.1 Initiation of Conservation Projects on Inscribed Waqf Built Properties through the Mersey Committee and the Department of Antiquities 242 8.1.2 Initiation of Adaptive Re-use of Waqf Built Properties for Museum Purposes 247 8.1.3 Municipalities’ Role in Physical Interventions in and around Waqf Built Properties 248 8.1.4 The Role of Press Coverage in Initiation of Rescue Operations and Conservation Projects on Waqf Built Properties with Ancient Monument Attributes 250 8.1.5 Political Motives Underlying the Conservation or No-Conservation of Waqf Built Properties with Symbolic Values 253 8.2 Authorisation Process 260 8.2.1 Administrative and Financial Aspects 260 8.2.2 New Arrangements in the Administration of the Post-Colonial Evkaf 262 8.2.3 The Legislative Aspects 264 8.3 New Inputs to Technical Planning of the Upkeep and Conservation Projects 269 8.3.1 Consultation for Physical Interventions and the Key Persons Involved 269 8.3.2 Preparation of the Specifications, Cost Estimates and the Awarding of Contracts 274 3.3.3 Physical Intervention Methods, Techniques and Materials and Contract Awarding 276 8.4 Conclusion 278 Chapter 9 Findings, Discussion and Conclusion 280 9.1 Findings and Discussions