OCS STUDY MMS 2007- 038 Worldwide Synthesis and Analysis of Existing Information Regarding Environmental Effects of Alternative Energy Uses on the Outer Continental Shelf July 2007 OCS Report MMS 2007- 038 Worldwide Synthesis and Analysis of Existing Information Regarding Environmental Effects of Alternative Energy Uses on the Outer Continental Shelf Authors Jacqueline Michel, Heidi Dunagan, Christine Boring, Erin Healy, William Evans, John M. Dean, Andrew McGillis, and James Hain July 2007 Prepared under MMS Contract 1435-01-06-CT-39821 by Research Planning, Inc. 1121 Park Street Columbia, South Carolina 29201 and ICF International, Inc. 33 Hayden Avenue Lexington, MA 02421 Published by Disclaimer This report was prepared under contract between the Minerals Management Service (MMS) and Research Planning, Inc. (RPI). This report has been technically reviewed by the MMS, and it has been approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the MMS, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. Citation Michel, J., Dunagan, H., Boring, C., Healy, E., Evans, W., Dean, J.M., McGillis, A. and Hain, J. 2007. Worldwide Synthesis and Analysis of Existing Information Regarding Environmental Effects of Alternative Energy Uses on the Outer Continental Shelf. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Herndon, VA, MMS OCS Report 2007-038. 254 pp. Acknowledgements Numerous people contributed to this study. Ms. Elizabeth Burkhold of MMS was the study director and provided assistance and guidance throughout the project. The report was improved through comments provided by ten peer reviewers of the draft report. This study was conducted by a team of researchers under the direction of Jacqueline Michel of Research Planning, Inc. (RPI). The writing team and assignments were: Jacqueline Michel, Ph.D., RPI – Benthic Resources, Space-Use Conflicts, Aesthetics Heidi Dunagan, M.S., RPI and James Hain, Ph.D., Associated Scientists at Woods Hole – Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles Christine Boring, M.S., RPI and William Evans, Old Bird Inc. – Flying Animals Erin Healy, M.S., ICF International, Inc. – Current Offshore Alternative Energy Technologies and Future Trends and Public Acceptance of Existing Projects-Successes and Failures John M. Dean, Ph.D., RPI and Distinguished Professor Emeritis, University of South Carolina – Fishery Resources Andrew McGillis, M.S., Baird & Associates, Inc. – Physical Processes At ICF International Lynne Jennrich was the Senior Editor and greatly improved the text; Melissa Zgola assisted in the literature acquisition; and Dean Gouvia developed the website for distribution of the literature to the writing team. At RPI, Joe Holmes and Wendy Early assisted in preparation of the graphics and report. Many researchers generously shared their time, publications, and opinions, which greatly contributed to the work presented here. i Table of Contents Disclaimer..................................................................................................................................... i Citation.......................................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... i List of Abbreviations and Acronyms ...................................................................................... vii List of Conversion Factors ........................................................................................................ x 1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................1-1 1.1 Background of the Study..........................................................................................1-1 1.2 Study Objectives ......................................................................................................1-1 2. Study Methods..................................................................................................................2-1 2.1 Literature Search......................................................................................................2-1 2.2 Database and Web Site Development .....................................................................2-2 3. Current Offshore Alternative Energy Technologies and Future Trends .....................3-1 3.1 Wind Technology......................................................................................................3-1 3.1.1 General Overview .......................................................................................3-1 3.1.2 Description of Technology and Infrastructure .............................................3-2 3.1.3 Operational Projects....................................................................................3-3 3.1.4 Planned Projects.........................................................................................3-5 3.1.5 Future Trends..............................................................................................3-8 3.2 Wave Technology.....................................................................................................3-9 3.2.1 General Overview .......................................................................................3-9 3.2.2 Description of Technology and Infrastructure ...........................................3-10 3.2.3 Future Trends in Ocean Wave Energy Conversion ..................................3-14 3.3 Ocean Current Technology ....................................................................................3-14 3.3.1 General Overview .....................................................................................3-14 3.3.2 Description of Ocean Current Technology and Infrastructure...................3-16 3.4 Solar Technology ...................................................................................................3-19 3.4.1 General Overview .....................................................................................3-19 3.4.2 Description of Technology and Infrastructure ...........................................3-20 3.4.3 Potential Solar Applications on the OCS...................................................3-21 3.5 Hydrogen Technology ............................................................................................3-21 4. Social, Economic, and Cultural Concerns of Offshore Alternative Energy ................4-1 4.1 Public Acceptance of Existing Projects—Successes and Failures ..........................4-1 4.1.1 Overview of Operational Projects................................................................4-1 4.1.2 European Experience—Denmark and the United Kingdom........................4-1 4.1.3 Pathways to Gaining Public Acceptance.....................................................4-5 4.1.4 Experience in the United States..................................................................4-8 4.2 Space-Use Conflicts...............................................................................................4-11 4.2.1 Potential Space-Use Conflicts...................................................................4-11 4.2.2 Space-Use Conflicts at Existing Offshore Wind Facilities .........................4-13 4.2.3 Current Models Used to Evaluate Space-Use Conflicts............................4-15 4.2.4 Space-Use Conflict Mitigation Used at Existing Offshore Wind Parks......4-16 4.2.5 Information Needs—Space-Use Conflicts.................................................4-17 4.3 Aesthetics...............................................................................................................4-18 4.3.1 Potential Aesthetics Impacts .....................................................................4-18 ii Table of Contents 4.3.2 Aesthetics Impacts at Existing Offshore Wind Facilities ...........................4-19 4.3.3 Current Models Used to Evaluate Aesthetics Impacts ..............................4-19 4.4 Additional Areas of Social, Cultural, and Economic Interest ..................................4-24 5. Potential Direct, Indirect, and Cumulative Impacts of Offshore Energy Technologies .......................................................................................................5-1 5.1 Wind Technologies...................................................................................................5-1 5.1.1 Potential Impacts Summary ........................................................................5-1 5.1.2 Physical Processes.....................................................................................5-2 5.1.3 Benthic Resources ....................................................................................5-15 5.1.4 Fishery Resources ....................................................................................5-31 5.1.5 Marine Mammals.......................................................................................5-51 5.1.6 Sea Turtles................................................................................................5-83 5.1.7 Flying Animals...........................................................................................5-92 5.2 Wave Technologies..............................................................................................5-121 5.2.1 Physical Processes.................................................................................5-124