A BEIEF EXPOSITION OF THE SANIHTA AND VEDANTA SYSTEMS OS INDIAN PHILOSOPHY- SUBMITTED TO MCGILL UNIVERSITY, MONTREAL, AS A THESIS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF LITERATURE. EDWARD CARRUTHERS--WOODLKY, &.A,, M.B.A,S,, Member of the Asiatic Society of Bengal^ Fellow of Calcutta University\ Principal^ London Missionary Society[s College^ Calcutta. Calcutta: 1907. *[K M wi^-^cn MS GILL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY \27257 A BRIEF EXPOSITION OF THE SANKHYA AND VEDANTA SYSTEMS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY. EDWARD CARRUTHERS WOODLEY, M.A., M.R.A.S., Member of the Asiatic Society of Bengal^ Fellow of Calcutta University\ Principal^ London Missionary Society's College^ Calcutta. Calcutta: 1907. BEIEF EXPOSITION OF THE SANKHYA AND VEDANTA SYSTEMS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY. 1277.51 CONTENTS. I. Sketch of the rise of Speculative Thought in India. II. The Sankhya Philosophy. III. The Vedanta Philosophy. IV. Appendices. I. The Yoga or Theistic Sankhya of Patanjali. II. The Purva-Mimansa of Jaimini. V. Bibliography. ,Index. PREFACE. I wish to point out a seeming ambiguity "in my references to the Tattwa Samasa, in the Section on the Sankhya Philosophy. I have re­ ferred to tMs work and the commentary published with it, by Dr. Ballantyne, indifferently as the Tattwa Samasa. This may not be, in the strictest sense correct, but the commentary is anonymous, and Dr. Ballantyne treats it as practically forming one book with the Tattwa Samasa. Even Profesor Max Muller was unable to identify it. This, I think, justifies my method of referring to it. Ccdeutta, August 1907. E. C. W. A BRIEF EXPOSITION OF THE SANKHYA AND VEDANTA SYSTEMS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY. Section I. Introduction—The Rise of Speculative Thought in India. When the Aryans entered India through the passes of the North-West, they were a simple, nature-loving people. The Vedic songs still charm us with their vernal freshness.1 They are the natural expression of a strong, buoyant race, living under simple social conditions and not, as yet, oppressed by a priestly hierarchy. There is only one reference to the caste system in the Rig Veda2 and that is in a late book. The doc­ trine of metempsychosis is not even suggested3. 1. A well-known Indian writer, in a recent book, has described the Vedic age in these words. "The early Vedic hymns are redolent with the fragrance of a bright and genial spring-time, reflecting the joy of a simple pastoral life in the golden age when the children of men played with mother nature in her kindest moods and the earth and the stars sang together."—Haveli "Benares, the Sacred City, page 3." 2. Eig-Veda X : 90. 3. It is allowable to regard such passages as X : 16 : 3, X : 58 :7 as containing the germ of the idea of metempsychosis ; but the actual doctrine had not yet been developed. [ 2 ] The early Aryans were Polytheists or to use Max Muller's more exact term, Henotheists1. To them the forces of nature were the manifesta­ tions of various gods, but the gods were thought of only one at a time. Hence arose that strange confusion and frequent contradiction in the func­ tions ascribed to them, which meets one con<- tinually in the Big Veda. We find the same powers ascribed in different hymns to Indra, Varuna, Mitra, Agni, and even to lesser gods2. A strong belief in a future life3 prevailed and the Pitaras were worshipped. There was little time or inclination for specu­ lation. Life had few problems. The people were engaged in winning the land from its earlier pos­ sessors and, when won, it afforded them a liveli­ hood only after considerable labour had been expended upon it. It was in later years, when they had left the Punjab and settled along the Ganges, that they began to speculate on the gr<eat problems of existence. Life had become more easy and increased leisure gave time for contemplation, Yet even in the earlier period there were a 1. Max Muller "Six Systems of Indian Philosophy" p. 40. 2. Eig-Veda. 5 : 3,1 ; 1 : 164 (quoted by Macdonell). 3. Whitney "Oriental and Linguistic Studies," Kaegi. "Eig- Veda" page 69 ; Eig-Veda. 10 : 14 See summary of Vedic view of the hereafter by Dr. Roth., Am. Oriental Soc. Jourp, 3: 343. Ath.-Veda 6 : 24. C 3' ] few who were not entirely satisfied with the be­ lief of the majority of their countrymen. Here and there in the Hymns one may note a yearning after some unifying conception which would bring order in the chaotic Theogony. At times several gods were thought of as one1, and this conception has led to some remarkable compounds. Max Miiller has also drawn attention to the idea of Visve Devas2, which, may be regarded as the first step in the direction of unity. Visve is a class name comprehending all the gods, greater and less, including even such beings as the Ma- ruts. The finest expression of this tendency towards Monotheism is found in a Hymn of the Tenth Book3 of the Big Veda, which ascribes oreation to Prajapati, lord of creatures. A further ad­ vance still is evident in another Hymn of the same Book4, in which a fundamental Existence is postulated. One cannot designate this Exis­ tence in personal terms. It is an indefinable Power lying behind all things that appear, and is regarded as preceding even the gods. "The gods came later than this Creation, who then 1. Rig-Veda, 1:2, 1:7, 2 : 27, 7 r85, 2. Max Muller "Six Systems," p. 39. Kaegi 'Rig-Veda' p. 34, also note this epithet applied to Indra,- Eig-Veda 8 : 87. 3. Rig-Veda 10 : 121. 4. Rig-Veda 10 : 12ft. [ 4 ] knows whence it arose ?" It is, in other words, the germ idea, from which Indian Philosophy, especially the Vedanta, subsequ ently developed. The similarity of ideas in this Hymn and in the famous definition of the Eternal found in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad1 is striking. This latter definition contains one of the fundamental views of the Vedantia philosophy2. The second stratum in /Indian literature is -f formed by the Yajur Veda. There are two chief schools of this Veda3 and it exists in several re­ censions. It is a production unique in literature. Nothing more dreary or unattractive can possibly be imagined. The transition from the Rig to the Yajur Veda can only be likened to passing from the bright sun-light into a darkened room in which weird shapes flit to and fro, engaged in seemingly inexplicable movements and uttering formulae, which are often absolutely meaningless. This great work contains the most minute direc­ tions for the performance of the sacrifice which had become the all—important thing in Indian life. From birth to death life had become a burdensome and weary journey. A single mis- i i n m , _ . 1. Brhad. Ar. Up. 3 : 8, 8. 2. Vedanta Sutras with Sankara's Commentary, 1st Adh. 1st Pada ; 22 ; 2nd Pada 1 : 13, 21. 3. I. Black Yajur-Veda, (a) Taittiriya Sanhita of the School of Apastamba. (6) Maitrayani Sanhita. II. White Yajur-Veda, (a) Madhyadina. (5) Kanva. [ 5 ] r take in the performance of the daily sacrifice was* believed to have the most far-reaching results both in the present life and in the long succes­ sion of lives which were thought to follow. The Yajur Veda is the work of the priestly caste which had come to occupy the chief place in the Indian social fabric following the settle­ ment in the Ganges valley. This caste gradually assumed a position of power and prerogative to which history presents no parallel. It was in the interest of the Brahmans that the people should believe in the efficacy of the sacrifice, as without their aid no sacrifice was valid. The hold thus obtained over a superstitious people has never been relaxed, and the Pessimism and Fatalism which have prevailed in India for more than two thousand years are largely its fruits. The various recensions of the Yajur Veda and the attached Brahmanas, which explain the Veda, contain little fresh speculative thought. The Gods are much the same as in the Rig Veda although certain Gods who formerly occupied an unimportant place in the Theogony, now come into prominence (e. g. Vishnu, Brahman). There are many legends1 which show a real desire on the part of some to account for the 1. Maitrayani Sanhita 1 : 5, 12. Satapatha Brah. 2 : 5. Note also the account of Creation in the Satapatha Brah. 10 : 1, and the story of the Flood, Sat. BraU 1:8. [ 6 I phenomena of the Universe. The ideas of Vis- vedevas1 and Visvekarman are also found. The Yajur Veda was probably composed between 800-600 B. C. The Fifth century B. C. witnessed some great movements in the East generally.2 It was the time of Zoroaster in Persia and of Confucius in China. In India a strong attempt was made to break the fetters welded by the priestly hierar­ chy. Brahmanism was shaken to its foundations. A reaction was inevitable after centuries of spiri­ tual oppression and, as might have been expected, took a violent form. The teaching of Sakya Muni threatened at one time to supplant Brahmanism altogether. Pessimistic as it was, Buddhism must have seemed a voice of freedom to oppress­ ed India. It began by rejecting the caste system entirely. It is true that Buddhism had little of positive good to offer. The Doctrine of the Wheel did not encourage individualism. All men were equal and all were compelled to travel the same long way which ended in Nirvana ; although by acquiring merit some of the many stages might be passed through rapidly or omitted altogether.