The Role of Aboriginal Humour in Cultural Survival and Resistance Pearl Duncan B.Litt (ANU); M.Ed (University of Canberra) A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2014 School of English, Media Studies and Art History Abstract This thesis investigates the function of humour in the survival of the Aboriginal people against all odds, including the onslaught of invasion, dispossession, powerlessness and oppression since the British invasion in 1788. In my ethnographic journey I am doing something different as an Aboriginal researcher in that insider research is used as my principal methodology. I am able to draw on my own understanding of how humour works in practice as well as in theory. The manifestations of Aboriginal humour in everyday life, together with the reasons why given incidents are funny, are an important part of the contextual cultural information that I bring to this thesis. The oppression of Aboriginal people following European settlement in Australia is marked by government policies which disempowered them, as well the racism which resulted in the clash of cultures and the crisis of identity for Aborigines. In the earlier chapters I draw upon the work of anthropologists, and historians of race relations, to discuss aspects of these issues. The discussion I provide of humour considers how far the emotions and humour are inextricably entwined, and addresses the elements of them. It is found that humour is a universal phenomenon but its manifestations vary from culture to culture. There is a close relationship between social structures and humour. Earlier anthropologists documented humour’s capacity for easing social conflicts, relieving tensions and for promoting order, as they understood it. When a culture is oppressed by another, this is reflected in how humour is expressed. The thesis briefly discusses three ethnic groups in situations of disempowerment whose specific styles of humour have played a role in cultural survival and whose socio-cultural strategies for survival can be compared with those of Aborigines. Culture and humour were closely interconnected in Aboriginal society. It is shown how humour worked in particular settings as a complex institutionalised practice central to Aboriginal culture, and how and why it could be used to regulate social behaviour by joking and shaming tactics. ii Aboriginal humour had to change, expand or re-form to meet new challenges. Humour was a weapon of the weak and it supported a subculture which grew out of the powerless situation in which Aborigines were placed by the dominant white group. Irony, satire and parody have been strategies of resistance in a colonised and a postcolonising Australia. Aborigines moved out of a culture of silence. Through using the benefits of education, there was progression towards empowerment. In the final three chapters, Black literature, Aboriginal theatre and black visual art and film are discussed and analysed; these were used to make statements of protest, and there developed a new self-awareness where Aboriginal humour pervaded the creative work in these areas. This demonstrates Aboriginal resilience in the face of dire circumstances which threatened their very survival. In the conclusion, connections are identified between traditional and more contemporary modes of Aboriginal humour. Despite destructive European impact, it has persisted as a tool of survival, resistance, and the maintenance of identity. iii Declaration by the author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly- authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my research higher degree candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the General Award Rules of The University of Queensland, immediately made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis. iv Publications during candidature No publications Publications included in this thesis No publications included Contributions by others to the thesis No contributions by others Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree None v Acknowledgements I wish to acknowledge and thank Professor Bruce Rigsby for his belief and acceptance that I possessed the academic rigour to embark on research for a Doctor of Philosophy degree. Dr John Bradley was my supervisor in the initial stages of my research. I wish to acknowledge with gratitude his valuable advice and constructive criticism during that time. Professor Carole Ferrier continued to supervise me when Dr Bradley left The University of Queensland. I wish to thank her for her unstinting advice and encouragement, and her continued support and belief that I was capable of achieving completion of my research. I thank her most sincerely for her forbearance. Dr Fiona Nicoll provided excellent support and valuable advice for my research and the writing of this thesis and I extend my thanks and gratitude to her also. There were other people along the way who showed interest in my research by providing useful advice and commentary. They are as follows: Stephen Albert, Mark Bin Barka, Ningelli Lawson, members of the Koemba Djarra theatre group, and the Indigenous Resource Centre at Inala. Associate Professor Elizabeth Mackinlay read the thesis, and made suggestions. Dr Sharon Bickle and Dr Irmtraud Petersson were generous with copy-editing and editing advice. Adam Shortman and Jennifer Duncan also helped with some early editing and formatting. Thanks to the administrative staff of the School of English, Media Studies and Art History, Cathy Squirrell, Angela Tuohy, Stormy Wehi and Vicky McNicol, and also the staff of the UQ Graduate School, for their support along the stages of my candidature. Thanks also to the School of Education at The University of Queensland for some financial support for the final production of the thesis. Finally, I wish to acknowledge the unfailing support and love from my late husband, John Bowmar Booth, which sustained me over the years of thesis involvement. vi Keywords humour, dispossession, racism, resilience, identity, survival, whiteness, Australia, Aborigines, indigeneity Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classifications (ANZSRC) ANZSRC code: 160805 Social Change 10% ANZSRC code: 169902 Studies of Aboriginal and TSI Society 70% ANZSRC code: 160803 Race and Ethnic Relations 20% Fields of Research (FoR) Classification FoR code: 1699 Other Studies in Human Society, 70% FoR code: 2002 Cultural Studies, 30% vii Table of Contents Abstract ii Declaration by the author iv Acknowledgements vi List of Illustrations ix Introduction 1 Chapter 1: My Ethnographic Journey 23 Chapter 2: Humour as a Weapon of the Weak 54 Chapter 3: Aboriginal Humour 82 Chapter 4: Humour in Black Literature 124 Chapter 5: Humour in Black Theatre 162 Chapter 6: Humour in Visual Art and Film 186 Chapter 7: Conclusion 211 Bibliography 215 Appendix: Illustrations 227 viii List of Illustrations Figure [1] Fiona Foley Dispersed. [2008]. Fiona Foley: Forbidden. Michele Helmrich et al., ed. 2010, 80–81. Figure [2] Fiona Foley Stud Gins. [2003].Fiona Foley: Forbidden, 2010, 78–79. Figure [3&4] Sue Elliot A Bullet a Day Keeps the . Away and A Dollar a Dot. Black Humour, 1997. Cur. Neville John O’Neill and Jane Barney. Figure [5] Sue Elliot “I Wish I Was White” Patrick White. Black Humour, 1997. Figure [6] Julie Gough The Sub-Dividing Games: Pogography 2000 – Tool for Land Reclamation vs Tools for Land Degradation. Black Humour, 1997. Figure [7] Laurie Nilsen Pauline’s Pecking Order. Black Humour, 1997. Figure [8] Gordon Hookey All the Natives Laughed as the Cruel Joke Was Played on Poor Li’l Pinky. Black Humour, 1997. Figure [9] Gordon Hookey Pinklash, Backlash, Blacklash. Black Humour, 1997. Figure [10] Bianca Beetson Me Me, Me and You, Emu Dreaming. Black Humour, 1997. Figure [11] Richard Bell Aboriginal Art It’s a White Thing. [2003]. Robert Leonard, ed. and cur. Richard Bell: Positivity, c2007. Figure [12] Richard Bell White Girls Can’t Hump. [2002]. Robert Leonard, ed. and cur. Richard Bell: Positivity. Figure [13] Fiona Foley HHH. Fiona Foley: Forbidden, 30–31. Figure [14] Fiona Foley Black Velvet. [1996] Fiona Foley: Forbidden, 82–83. Figure [15] Destiny Deacon Over the Fence. 2000. Walk & Don’t Look Blak. Resource Kit, MCA, Sydney, 13. Figure [16] Destiny Deacon Adoption. [1993-2000]. Resource Kit, MCA, Sydney, 17. ix INTRODUCTION Murrie humour is an integral and warm concept of Aboriginal society. Black humour is often so delicate that it is hard to locate, and Europeans come off with a baffled feeling without knowing quite why. The experiences, perspectives and needs of many Aboriginal people are so divergent from those of the majority of White Australians, that the reality from a Black perspective is not easily understood by Whites. Aborigines draw humour from situations and definitions about them which would prove painful and offensive if told by Europeans.