Reconciling a Policy of Neutrality with the Prospect of Integration: Ireland, the European Economic Community, and Ireland’s United Nations Policy, 1965-1972 Greg Thomas Spelman B.Soc.Sc. (Psych), B.A. (Hons) School of Humanities and Human Services Centre for Social Change Research Queensland University of Technology Submitted in full requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2003 KEY WORDS • Ireland • European Community • United Nations • Neutrality • Integration • Diplomatic History • International Relations • Foreign Policy • Disarmament • Non-Proliferation • Cold War • Decolonisation TECHNICAL ASPECTS The technical aspects of the presentation of this dissertation have been dictated by various authorities. • The structure, format and order of the thesis conform to the QUT Requirements for Presenting Theses. • The format is in accordance with the Word 2000 program, and the layout of the presentation is attributable to this software. • The Collins Gem Irish Dictionary (1995) has been the reference for the presentation and spelling of Gaelic terminology. i ABSTRACT The decade of the 1960s was a period of significant evolution in the foreign policy priorities of the Republic of Ireland. On 31 July 1961, Ireland applied for membership of the European Community. That application was vetoed in January 1963 by the French President, Charles de Gaulle. Nevertheless, it was an indication of the growing “Europeanisation” of Irish foreign policy, which was secured in May 1967 in a renewed and ultimately successful application by Ireland for membership of the Common Market. Because of the overlapping interests of the European Community and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), however, these initiatives towards integration with Western Europe posed a dilemma for the decision-makers in Dublin given that, in the Irish context, foreign policy was predicated on neutrality. Since Ireland’s admission to the United Nations (UN) in 1955 and especially from the reinstatement of Frank Aiken as Minister for External Affairs in 1957, the diplomatic component of Ireland’s neutrality was defined largely by its UN policy. Ireland’s continued attachment to neutrality, despite its application for European Community membership, caused significant frustration to the governments of the member-states, especially France under de Gaulle, and was seen to be an obstacle to Ireland’s accession. These concerns were communicated explicitly to Dublin, along with the view that Ireland needed to demonstrate a greater propensity to support Western interests on major international issues. Pressure of this kind had dissuaded other European neutrals (Austria, Finland, Malta and Sweden) from pursuing membership of the European Community until 1995 – after the Cold War had ended – but it did not deter the Irish. ii Despite the pressure from the European Community, Irish policy continued to be characterised by neutrality and, almost invariably, conflict with French UN policy. This included, amongst other matters, policy in relation to the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, the financing of peacekeeping, the Vietnam War, representation of China at the UN, and various decolonization problems in Southern Africa. This insulation of Ireland’s foreign policy from the imperatives of the application for membership of the European Community was largely the product of the fragmentation of decision-making in the formulation of Irish diplomacy. This research project takes a unique perspective on the topic by focusing, in particular, on the period 1965 to 1972 and, also, breaks further new ground in utilizing documentary material only recently released by the National Archives in Dublin, the University College Dublin Archives, the Public Record Office, London, and the UN Archives in New York, along with published diplomatic records and secondary sources. Consequently, it offers an original contribution to our understanding of Irish foreign policy in this crucial period of its development and the capacity of the Irish Government to reconcile the two fundamental and apparently conflicting pillars of its foreign policy – neutrality and membership of the European Community. iii REFEREED PUBLICATIONS AND PRESENTATIONS RELATED TO THE THESIS Spelman, G. T. (2000). ‘Ireland at the United Nations: The Impact of the 1967 Application for EC Membership on Ireland’s UN Policy’. Conference Presentation at The 11th Irish-Australian Conference at Murdoch University/University of Notre Dame, 26-29 April 2000. Spelman, G. T. (2001). ‘Ireland and the European Communities: The Renewal of the Application for Accession in 1967’. Melbourne Historical Journal, 29, pp. 143-151. Spelman, G. T. (2002). ‘From Independence to Interdependence: the Changing Nature of Irish Identity’. Conference Proceedings of the Conference for Social Change at Queensland University of Technology on 22 November 2002, forthcoming publication. Spelman, G. T. (2002). ‘Ireland’s Neutrality Policy in World War II: The Impact of Belligerent Pressures on the Implementation of Neutrality’. UCLA Historical Journal, 20, forthcoming publication. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Keywords and Technical Aspects i Abstract ii Refereed Publications and Presentations Related to the Thesis iv Table of Contents v Glossary of Acronyms and Abbreviations xii Glossary of Irish Terms xiv Glossary of Leading Characters xv Statement of Original Authorship xvi Acknowledgements xvii Preface xx 1. The Origin of Irish Neutrality at the UN, 1957-1961 1 2. From Independence to Interdependence: The Impact of the Application for EC Membership in 1961 on Ireland’s UN Policy 44 3. The Renewed Application for EC Membership in 1967: Implications for Irish Foreign Policy 80 4. The Fragmentation of Ireland’s Foreign Policy 105 5. Ireland’s Peace Policy at the UN, 1965-1972 122 6. Ireland and the Cold War at the UN, 1965-1972 159 7. Ireland and Decolonisation at the UN, 1965-1972 213 Conclusion 258 Appendices 275 Bibliography 280 v Chapter 1: The Origin of Ireland’s Neutrality at the UN, 1957-1961 1 ¾ Ireland’s History of Neutrality 2 ¾ Ireland at the United Nations 5 ¾ Ireland’s Peace Policy at the UN 8 • Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons 9 • The Suspension of Nuclear Testing 15 • The Disarmament Committee 16 • Areas of Law 18 • Other Aspects of Ireland’s Peace Policy 20 ¾ Ireland and the Cold War at the UN 21 • The Middle East 22 • Tibet 26 • The Representation of China at the UN 29 ¾ Ireland and Decolonisation at the UN 32 • Algeria 33 • French Togoland 36 • Namibia 37 • Apartheid in South Africa 38 • Transmission of Information for Administered Territories 41 ¾ Conclusion 41 Chapter 2: From Independence to Interdependence: The Impact of the First Application for EC Membership in 1961 on Ireland’s UN policy 44 ¾ Ireland’s Application for EC Membership and Concerns about its Neutrality and UN Policy 45 vi ¾ The Clarifications of the Irish Government to Reconcile Neutrality and Integration 46 ¾ Lemass’ Clarifications of Government Policy to International Audiences 48 ¾ Lemass’ Clarifications of Government Policy in the Domestic Sphere 50 ¾ Ireland’s Peace Policy at the UN 52 • Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons 52 • Peacekeeping 53 ¾ Ireland and the Cold War at the UN 54 • The Representation of China at the UN 55 • The UN in Korea 58 • The Bay of Pigs Invasion 60 • The Cuban Missile Crisis 62 ¾ Ireland and Decolonisation at the UN 64 • Algeria 64 • Tunisia 66 • Southern Rhodesia 68 • Rwanda 68 • Apartheid in South Africa 69 • Other Aspects of Ireland’s Policy on Decolonisation 70 ¾ Other Issues at the UN 70 • South-Tyrol 70 • Proposals for Ireland to Join a New Moderate Bloc 74 vii ¾ Conclusion 75 Chapter 3: The Renewed Application for EC Membership: Implications for Irish Foreign Policy 80 ¾ The Implications for Sovereignty Posed by Membership of the EC 82 ¾ The Impact of the EC Application on Ireland’s UN policy 87 ¾ Reconciling Neutrality and Non-Membership of NATO with the EC Application 88 ¾ European Integration and the Issue of Partition 91 ¾ The Link Between the Irish and British Applications: The Objective of Simultaneous Admission 93 ¾ Charles de Gaulle and Opposition to Expansion of the EC and the Inclusion of the UK 94 ¾ Ireland’s Continued Commitment to the EC 101 ¾ Conclusion 102 Chapter 4: The Fragmentation of Ireland’s Foreign Policy 105 ¾ The Foreign Policy of Newly Independent States 105 ¾ The Separation of External Economic Policy from Political and Security Matters 107 ¾ Responsibility for the Formulation of Irish Foreign Policy 110 ¾ Aiken’s Focus on the UN and the Insulation of UN Policy 112 ¾ Hillery’s Succession to the Post of Minister for External Affairs 116 ¾ A Recent Challenge to the Hypothesis of Ireland’s Foreign Policy Fragmentation 118 ¾ Conclusion 120 viii Chapter 5: Ireland’s Peace Policy at the UN, 1965-1972 122 ¾ The Conflict Between Irish and French Policy on Peace Issues 122 ¾ The Financing of Peacekeeping Operations 127 ¾ Disarmament 142 • Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons 143 • The Conference of Non-Nuclear-Weapon States 152 • Other Disarmament Issues 155 ¾ Conclusion 157 Chapter 6: Ireland and the Cold War at the UN, 1965-1972 159 ¾ Ireland and its Context Within Western Policy in the Cold War 160 ¾ Aiken’s Proposals for Détente and their Relation to the Cold War 166 ¾ Domestic Criticisms of Ireland’s Policy on Cold War Issues 170 ¾ The Representation of China at the UN 173 ¾ The UN in Korea 186 ¾ The Vietnam War 188 ¾ Czechoslovakia 1968 194 ¾ The Middle East 201 ¾ Conclusion 210 Chapter 7: Ireland and Decolonisation at the UN, 1965-1972 213 ¾ Ireland’s Support for Decolonisation and the Ramifications for its EC Application 213 ¾ Northern Ireland 216 ¾ Gibraltar 225 ix ¾ Southern Africa 229 • Namibia 232 • Apartheid in South Africa 239 • The Portuguese Territories in Africa 243 • The Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples 245 • Southern Rhodesia 246 ¾ Ireland’s View of Voluntary and Mandatory Sanctions 247 ¾ Western Influences on Ireland’s Policy on Decolonisation 249 ¾ Criticisms of Ireland’s Policy on Decolonisation 252 ¾ Patrick Hillery and Ireland’s Policy on Decolonisation 255 ¾ Conclusion 256 Conclusion 258 Appendices 1.