Natural Disasters and the Crusades: Framing Earthquakes in Historical Narratives, 1095-1170 by Stephen Casta A thesis presented to the University of Waterloo in fulfillment of the thesis requirement for the degree of Master of Arts in History Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2017 © Stephen Casta 2017 AUTHOR'S DECLARATION I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public. ii ABSTRACT This thesis explores perceptions of earthquake causality in the accounts of twelfth- century Syria and the ways that medieval views of natural disasters influenced historical writing. Examining the perceived causes, effects, and significance of cataclysmic seismic events provides insight into shared elements of faith perspectives, the role of nature in medieval worldviews, and how chroniclers framed accounts of natural disasters to reflect their religious and political prejudices. Medieval writers believed that natural phenomena were indicative of important world events and imbued with spiritual significance. Chroniclers perceived earthquakes as omens of future disaster or the apocalypse, and associated them with a need for repentance due to their belief that seismic disasters were divine punishment for moral failings. In addition, Christian and Muslim sources utilized these perceptions on divine causality to criticize the failings of political leaders and rival religious communities. These patterns of portrayal possess great significance in the context of the major conflicts and cultural convergences in the twelfth-century Near East. In addition to the theological perspectives and political criticism present in the sources, terrestrial and astrological explanations for earthquakes were prevalent in the twelfth century and often used to complement, not disprove, perceptions of divine causation. Apocalyptic sentiment and crusading spirituality also influenced portrayals of earthquakes, particularly in the Christian sources. These intellectual patterns are evident in earthquake accounts from the period irrespective of religious and cultural differences, but were firmly grounded in the political realities of the Levant during the Crusades. The sources’ methods of portraying seismic disasters, therefore, provide important insight into the worldviews of medieval chroniclers and the broad effects of earthquakes amidst the complex dynamics of twelfth-century Syria. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis has been a long and arduous experience, but also a highly rewarding one and I am grateful to the many people who have contributed to its completion. First, I wish to thank my supervisor, Dr. Steven Bednarski, for his tireless assistance and ready guidance throughout my program. Your enthusiasm for history has inspired me with a greater appreciation for both the study of the past and the opportunities of the future. I have been fortunate to participate in your classes, the Medieval D.R.A.G.E.N. Lab, and the Herstmonceux project with fellow students who share common interests in history and humour. Thank you for all the time and energy you have dedicated to furthering your students’ plans and studies. Second, I would like to extend my thanks to Dr. Lucas Villegas-Aristizabal and Dr. Richard Shaw for their discussions, advice, and friendship. To my professors in the Tri- University program, I would like to thank you for sharing your passion for history and broadening my knowledge of the past. To my wonderful parents and family, you have always been a source of support and camaraderie for me and I am grateful for our long hours of discussion about history, life, faith, and everything in between. Thank you also to all my friends for the great times we have shared all over the country and I look forward to many more in the future. Finally, I owe a tremendous debt of gratitude to my wonderful wife Maria. You have supported me through every difficulty with never-ending encouragement and support. You are the greatest inspiration and companion I could ask for. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS AUTHOR'S DECLARATION ...................................................................................................................... ii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................................... iv INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 1 CHAPTER ONE: PARAMETERS AND HISTORIOGRAPHY ................................................................. 7 1.1. Sources and Methods .................................................................................................................... 7 1.2. State of the Field .............................................................................................................................. 17 1.2.1. Medieval Man and Nature .................................................................................................... 17 1.2.2. Natural Environment and the Near East ............................................................................... 23 1.3. Earthquakes in the Near East ........................................................................................................... 29 1.3.1. Significance .......................................................................................................................... 29 1.3.2. Historical Evidence .............................................................................................................. 30 1.3.3. Seismological Evidence ....................................................................................................... 39 CHAPTER TWO: THE AUTHORS AND THEIR WORLDVIEWS ........................................................ 46 2.1. Regional Context ............................................................................................................................. 46 2.1.1. Political Background of the Near East ................................................................................. 46 2.1.2. Cultural and Religious Interaction ....................................................................................... 53 2.2. Methods and Influences ................................................................................................................... 57 2.2.1. Common Patterns ................................................................................................................. 57 2.2.2. Crusading Spirituality .......................................................................................................... 70 CHAPTER THREE: COMMON INTERPRETATIONS OF EARTHQUAKES ...................................... 75 3.1. Theological Perspectives.................................................................................................................. 75 3.1.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 75 3.1.2. Signs and Omens .................................................................................................................. 78 3.1.3. Punishment ........................................................................................................................... 86 3.1.4. Apocalypse ........................................................................................................................... 91 3.2. Terrestrial Theories .......................................................................................................................... 94 v 3.3. Astrological Explanations ................................................................................................................ 99 3.3.1. Prevalence ............................................................................................................................ 99 3.3.2. Disaster Causality............................................................................................................... 102 CHAPTER FOUR: FRAMING EARTHQUAKES IN HISTORICAL NARRATIVE ............................ 108 4.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 108 4.2. Meaning of Signs and Omens ........................................................................................................ 108 4.3. Reasons for Punishment ................................................................................................................. 111 4.3.1. External Criticism .............................................................................................................. 111 4.3.2. Introspective Criticism ....................................................................................................... 115 4.3.3. Political Criticism............................................................................................................... 119 4.4. Apocalyptic Expectations .............................................................................................................. 122 4.4.1. Sacred Texts ......................................................................................................................