CHAPTER 13 Narrative Persuasion Helena Bilandzic and Rick Busselle n the context of persuasion, narrative is most presence of narrative elements in arguments and commonly considered in opposition to argu- rhetorical elements in narratives. Consider that Imentation. This separation likely began with an argument may contain information, such as Aristotle’s distinction between logos and pathos, an example (e.g., Gibson & Zillmann, 1994), which has come to represent the domain of logic which audience members may process the same and reason on one hand, and emotion, poetry, way they do narrative information. Similarly, a and stories on the other (Herrick, 1997). Through- narrative may contain persuasive information out much of the 20th century, persuasion con- that takes the form of an argument (e.g., Hoeken noted argument—the putting forth of claims and & Hustinx, 2009) or claims and evidence (e.g., supporting evidence linked by rational or logical Dahlstrom, 2010). coherence (Salvador, 1994; Zarefsky, 1990). Con- Narrative persuasion may not be a mutually versely, narrative was thought of as a description exclusive alternative to other persuasive, rhetori- of events and characters (Abbott, 2002; Bruner, cal forms, or an alternative to traditional adver- 1986) presented possibly to enlighten, certainly to tising or health messages. Instead, one can entertain. This distinction between persuasion approach narrative persuasion from the perspec- and narrative also is reflected in the view of audi- tive that much of human communication and ences as processing information in either a para- interaction, including many forms of persuasive digmatic or narrative mode (Bruner, 1986). In the messages, contain narrative elements or may paradigmatic mode, audience members are activate in audiences processes associated with thought to gather information, weigh facts, and narrative comprehension (Schank & Abelson, evaluate arguments; while in the narrative mode, 1995; Schank & Berman, 2002). Over the past they are assumed to focus on understanding caus- decade, research in advertising, health communi- ally and chronologically related events played out cation, and entertainment education has incor- by sentient characters (Padgett & Allen, 1997). porated theoretical and methodological elements This dichotomy between argument and nar- of narrative persuasion (e.g., Durkin & Wakefield, rative may be heuristically useful. However, 2008; Escalas, 2007; Moyer-Gusé, 2008). Given there are risks inherent in a two-mode view of this, our approach in this chapter is to explore messages or processing (Keren & Schul, 2009): how narrative elements manifest in different Exclusionary definitions fail to recognize the types of persuasive content, the degree to which 200 (c) 2013 Sage Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Chapter 13. Narrative Persuasion——201 people are aware of persuasive intent when dif- the story exist in a text, the realization of the fused in narratives, and the mechanisms leading story exists in the mind of audience members as to narrative persuasion. they experience the narrative. Bordwell (1985) describes a story as “the imaginary construct we create progressively and retroactively . the Defining Narrative in developing result of picking up narrative cues, Light of Persuasion applying schemata, and framing and testing hypotheses” (p. 49, also see Zwaan, Langston, & Narrative can be thought of, again broadly, as Graesser, 1995). symbolic representation of events (Abbott, 2002; A minimalist definition of narrative as a rep- Ryan, 2007, see also Escalas, 1998). Abbott (2002) resentation of events will include a range of illustrates how a narrative can be as brief as a media formats, such as images, phrases, and single sentence, such as “I fell down.” Explicitly, advertisements, even though they commonly this communicates the occurrence of an event would not be thought of as narratives. Certainly, and suggests states that precede and follow: The the depiction of a parent putting a bandage on a narrator was standing and then, as a result of child’s scrape suggests characters and events, as some mishap, found him- or herself on the well as several emotions. Such “drama ads” com- ground. Similarly, a sketch of a ship wrecked on municate a product’s features “through a story- a rocky shore suggests that the vessel once sailed like format” (Wentzel, Tomczak, & Herrmann, and that something happened, possibly a storm, 2010, p. 511). Advertisements or marketing mes- which led to its current state. This definition of sages containing testimonials and examples also narrative can easily be applied to a broad range may take a narrative form when a typical person of potentially persuasive content, from a novel describes an experience with a product or situa- like Uncle Tom’s Cabin, often cited as changing tion (e.g., Martin, Wentzel, & Tomczak, 2008). attitudes about slavery prior to the United States’ An alternative to this plot-focused definition Civil War (Strange, 2002) to a photograph of a is to consider narrative as a portrayal of the inner wrecked automobile accompanied by a textual world of a character—his or her views, perspec- reference to alcohol. This broad definition of tives, emotions, motivations, or goals (Fludernik, narrative emphasizes two elements that are not 1996). Narrative that is based on this “experienti- necessarily associated with other persuasive ality” is independent of plot. For example, brief forms: the suggestion of a character or characters testimonials from cancer patients (e.g., Kreuter and the representation of an event or events. In et al., 2010) about their current state represent a the shipwreck example, the sketch may not narrative. This definition emphasizes the notion include any humans. Yet, the ship’s passengers— of empathy (Zillmann, 1994, 2006) or identifica- at least a crew—are implied, as is the driver of a tion with a character (Cohen, 2001; Murphy, wrecked automobile. Frank, Moran, & Patnoe-Woodley, 2011), which Audiences do not receive stories passively. also are processes central to narrative experi- Instead, readers, viewers, or listeners construct ences. Here, even a fear appeal message may be the story’s meaning in their own mind; the considered a narrative if, for example, it includes result is referred to as the “realization” of some type of victim statement (e.g., Slater, 1999). the story (Oatley, 2002). Story realization is the Considering that consumers of stories are often audience member’s cognitive and emotional deeply moved by characters, it makes sense to understanding of events based on the text and extend the definition of narrative in this way. their own pre-existing, relevant knowledge of Ultimately, narrative persuasion can be the topic (Busselle & Bilandzic, 2008; Graesser, defined as any influence on beliefs, attitudes, or Olde, & Klettke, 2002). While the elements of actions brought about by a narrative message (c) 2013 Sage Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 202——PART II. Theories, Perspectives, and Traditions through processes associated with narrative com- lose weight (Studies 1 and 3) and about alcohol prehension or engagement. With this broad defi- abuse (Study 2) were more persuasive than statis- nition in mind, we turn to the differences between tical evidence about these topics. However, the rhetoric and narrative persuasion. difference was present only among participants who were less involved in the issue, implicating a heuristic process. Niederdeppe, Shapiro, and Narrative Versus Porticella (2011) found a narrative about the Non-narrative Persuasion causes of obesity to be more effective in prompt- ing external attributions than a non-narrative A primary question among persuasion scholars summary explanation containing similar infor- has focused on the relative effectiveness of mes- mation. However, the effect was found only sages presented in a narrative form compared to among politically liberal participants. those taking a non-narrative form. This is a com- A number of studies also have found narrative plex question because non-narrative messages messages to be equal or inferior to messages tak- intended to persuade can use different strategies, ing a narrative form. Kopfman, Smith, Ah Yun, such as presenting statistical evidence, reasoned and Hodges, (1998) found that statistical evi- arguments, or non-narrative, celebrity endorse- dence messages about organ donation were ments. Similarly, potentially persuasive narra- evaluated more positively (e.g., credibility, appro- tives can vary in many ways, as previously priateness) and lead to more positive attitudes described, as well as with respect to the mere about signing an organ donor card than a similar quality of the story (Green & Brock, 2002). narrative message. However, the organ donation A number of studies have compared narrative narrative produced greater anxiety among par- to non-narrative persuasive messages. Kreuter ticipants than the non-narrative regarding the et al. (2010) found that a narrative about the need for an organ transplant. Dunlop, Wakefield, importance of mammography in breast cancer and Kashima (2010) recently found no advantage detection and survival told by survivors was of a narrative over an advocacy format in story- more effective than a comparable informational boards for advertisements about smoking cessa- video with respect to recall and behavioral inten- tion or the importance of protecting oneself tion, but not actual behavior. However, Kreuter from sunburn. Similarly,