©2011 Jessica R. Anderson Hughes ALL RIGHTS RESERVED FORCED PROSTITUTION: THE COMPETING AND CONTESTED USES OF THE CONCENTRATION CAMP BROTHEL by JESSICA R. ANDERSON HUGHES A Dissertation submitted to the Graduate School-New Brunswick Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in History written under the direction of Professor Belinda Davis and approved by ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ New Brunswick, New Jersey May 2011 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION FORCED PROSTITUTION: THE COMPETING AND CONTESTED USES OF THE CONCENTRATION CAMP BROTHEL By JESSICA R. ANDERSON HUGHES Dissertation Director: Professor Belinda Davis This dissertation enhances and complicates the history of Nazi racial and sexual policies by examining the quotidian politics of ten brothels staffed by and for prisoners that operated in concentration camps in Germany and its occupied territories. Instituted in 1941 under the command of Heinrich Himmler with the goal of providing rewards for diligent labor among “prominent” male camp prisoners, the brothels constituted a unique space in which competing Nazi ideologies of race, power, and sex collided. This dissertation not only explores how the brothels functioned as part of a Nazi-inspired labor incentive program for “prominent” prisoners, but also reveals their unannounced functions, such as serving as laboratories of sexual experimentation for the “re- education” of homosexual prisoners. It shows too how prisoners instrumentalized sex and sexuality to their advantage. Although the majority of women and some men could not choose their level of participation in the brothel, in many instances they were able to use their time in the brothel to their advantage. For some female prisoners forced into ii prostitution and for male prisoners earning the privilege of brothel visits, sexual activity inside the brothel provided brief moments of intimacy within the dehumanizing atmosphere of the camps. Sexual activity behind the brothel doors thus became a reaffirmation of humanity for certain prisoners and a pivotal element of their survival strategy. This history of the brothels makes three crucial interventions. The first is a reconceptualization of the choices made by women forced into prostitution by problematizing concepts like “volunteerism” and “prostitute” in this setting, this study makes plain the circumstances surrounding the agency of these women. The second is to complicate and add to the literature on the “gray zone” and notions of “cooperation” under Nazi rule. The third is to provide a nuanced, detailed analysis of the functioning of sex, race, and power in Nazi Germany. This research transforms and adds to our understanding of the role of sex in Nazi policy. Despite the regime’s desire to harness sexuality, it proved that even in a closely controlled atmosphere, to be beyond the state’s control. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I have been mentally writing my acknowledgments for longer than I care to admit, so it is with a great sense of accomplishment that I finally see these words in print. This dissertation would not have been possible without my generous funding from Rutgers University, the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst, and the American Association of University Women. Particular thanks go to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum for including me on the research expedition to the Red Cross International Tracing Services Archive in Bad Arolsen, Germany in 2008. The work I accomplished there is found on nearly every page of this dissertation. I am grateful to the faculty and staff in the history department at Rutgers, my academic home throughout my Ph.D. journey. Special thanks to the irreplaceable Dawn Ruskai who has helped me navigate through the redtape and roadblocks at Rutgers both while in residence and away. I thank my dissertation committee whose support and varied perspectives have shaped this project. Bonnie Smith’s insightful comments have helped me widen my perspective of histories of sexuality. She continues to inspire me to clarify and make bold claims. Paul Hanebrink has consistently provided me with concrete suggestions for furthering my work and I was lucky to work closely with him over the years, gaining invaluable insight into teaching. Atina Grossmann’s excellent comments and thought-provoking questions have been critical to the final revisions of this dissertation. I thank Belinda Davis for advising this project and for her simultaneous support and insistence on greater analysis and clarity in my work. I have been fortunate to be surrounded by so many fantastically intelligent, smart, and witty people during my tenure as a graduate student. I first thank my dear friend and iv unofficial mentor, Dorothee Brantz, for sharing her enthusiasm for German history with a young and clueless former field hockey player. Louisa Rice and Carmen Khair are not only excellent historians, but friends who were quick to laugh and always eager for adventure. Rebecca Scales spent countless hours on the phone with me as both a soundboard and a cheerleader through the heartbreaks and successes of this project. I am so grateful for our friendship. I thank my fellow Rutgers Germanists, Jennifer Miller, Laurie Marhoefer, and Carla MacDougall, for being the funniest and most fun-loving group of historians imaginable. I am grateful to Laurie Marhoefer’s characteristic good cheer and willingness to read endless drafts of my work and answer all of my Weimar questions. I first met Carla MacDougall on my recruiting trip to Rutgers and my experience has largely been shaped by our friendship. I thank her for sharing her love of Berlin with me and making it my second home. I am indebted to Megan Mackey, Kate Carroll, and Mary Brown for always being there to talk, laugh, and get one another through life’s ups and downs. Our friendships have always and continue to sustain me. I am blessed to have two incredibly smart and talented brothers whom I appreciate deeply. To Christopher and David, thank you for being such important parts of my life. My dear Inge provided me with a home away from home while in Germany. I am truly indebted to her for sharing our family history with me. It is with the deepest and most heartfelt gratitude that I express my love and thanks to my parents who have always loved me unconditionally and supported all of my endeavors. They are a monument of love, compassion, and generosity. I hope to live life as they have. There v exists no better example of what hard work, perseverance, and enthusiasm can achieve than my father. I thank him for setting the bar so unbelievably high. I am the daughter and granddaughter of extraordinary women. I hope my Grandma Ann and my Oma Emmy would see in me, if even just a little, some of their qualities. My Grandma Ann was the embodiment of intelligence and grace and my Oma Emmy was a woman of incredible bravery and faith. I know that these two women would have been so pleased to see their granddaughter earn her Ph.D. My mother was the first woman in her family to attend college. A familiar story told in our family is how her mother marched her tiny 4’10” frame to the front of the ceremony and asked them to pause the commencement so that she could take a picture of her daughter with diploma in hand. Soon after, my mother continued to make her mom proud by earning her Master’s Degree. My mother instilled within me a love for learning and the notion that any dream was possible. I hope she is as proud of me as her mother was of her. Finally, I thank my very patient and loving husband Daniel. Thank you for always encouraging me and often making sacrifices for my work. Your kindness knows no bounds and for that I love you. You have lived with this dissertation everyday and its final completion is a testimony to our partnership. Our greatest achievement, Samuel Augustus, is so wonderfully and frightfully made that all other feats pale by comparison. You are both my heart. vi DEDICATION To my Mom and Dad vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT…………………………………………………....................... .ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS…………………………………………………...iv DEDICATION……………………………………………………………….vi TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………... .viii LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………. .ix ILLUSTRATIONS………………………………………………………… .x INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………. .1 CHAPTER ONE Scourge or Necessity? The Evolution of Nazi Prostitution Policy………... .23 CHAPTER TWO Soliciting “Cooperation:” Recruiting the Camp Brothel Workforce………. .91 CHAPTER THREE Life in the Brothel………………………………………………………….. .133 CHAPTER FOUR Prisoner Johns: The Eager, the Reluctant, the Curious, and the Forced….....190 CHAPTER FIVE Instrumental Sex in the Concentration Camp Universe……………. …….....231 CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………...270 BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………...277 CURRICULUM VITAE…………………………………………………….299 viii LIST OF TABLES Buchenwald Brothel…………………………………………………………208 ix LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Map of Gusen Concentration Camp…………………………………………86 Gusen Prisoner Brothel………………………………………………………87 Buchenwald Prisoner Brothel………………………………………………..88 Brothel Koberzimmer………………………………………………………..89 Waiting Room, Buchenwald Brothel………………………………………...90 x 1 Introduction In the spring of 1941, SS Reichsführer Heinrich Himmler returned from a visit to the I.G. Farben plant outside of Oświęcim, Poland, excited by what he had witnessed. I.G. Farben had successfully been raising labor productivity