A University of Sussex PhD thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details SOMALI WOMEN AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION: A CASE STUDY OF DIASPORA IN MINNEAPOLIS AND LONDON HABON ABDULLE DPHIL IN GENDER STUDIES SCHOOL OF LAW, POLITICS & SOCIOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX August 2016 Declaration I hereby declare that this thesis has not been and will not be, submitted in whole or in part to another University for the award of any other degree. Signature:……………………………………… Abstract This dissertation is research in the area of political engagement as affected by gender and immigrant status. More specifically, the dissertation examines the political participation of Somali diaspora Muslim women in Minneapolis and London. The topic is of particular significance given the increase in essentialist arguments of inner incompatibility between Islam and Western democratic and liberal culture. No research to date has empirically analyzed the political participation of Somali diaspora women in Minneapolis and London. The goal of the study was twofold: to understand similarities and differences in diaspora women from two different sites and to explore how generational differences affect the forms and levels of political participation of the diaspora woman. To capture the similarities and differences of the respondents, I employed a qualitative approach. This method allows accounts from the perspectives of the women themselves to explain the types of participation factors that hinder or engender their involvement. The empirical analysis is built on semi-structured interviews that were conducted with 40 Somali diaspora Muslim women living in Minneapolis and London. Interview themes involved topics such as discrimination at school, downward mobility, political activism both transnational and local, belonging, and identification. Furthermore, personal observations made during political demonstrations and community gatherings were included in the analysis. The study draws broadly from the following theories: postcolonialism, transnationalism, intersectionality, and social capital. The findings from the study suggest that Somali diaspora women participate in the politics of Minneapolis and London and that generation does affect type and form of political engagement. Moreover, my findings argue that immigrant women have public roles in transnational politics. This research will contribute to the literature on immigrant women and political participation by providing further evidence to i explain how generation, locality and religious affiliations impact Somali immigrant women’s political activities in Minneapolis and London. ii Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of my hooyo Xawo Jamac Kaarshe, a strong and smart woman whom I miss every day. iii Acknowledgements The end of dissertation-writing is described as a release after which life will take a new, and better, course. I cannot agree more to that description. After many years of working on this project I am very eager to get my life back to normal. I owe many people for their contribution during the writing of my dissertation. I would like to express my gratitude to my two supervisors Dr. Ben Fincham and Dr. Laura Morosanu for their invaluable knowledge, guidance, mentoring, critical insights, advice and constant encouragement. Both Ben and Laura have been a true role model for me both as an academic and as a human being. My most sincere thanks. I also would like to thank my examiners Dr. Dominic Pasura and Dr. Naaz Rashid for providing their warmhearted encouragements and insightful comments. I would like to say thank you to my friends, and those who have cheered for my success in this project, for all the support. I am greatly indebted to my best friend Claire Zindler for her support, encouragement, love, and precious critique, and proofreading. I am lucky to have her as a friend. I express my deep gratitude to all the research participants for giving me the opportunity to interview them in order to carry out this study. Finally I would like to give my gratitude to my family without whose love and emotional support the completion of my dissertation would be merely impossible iv Table of Contents List of Tables………………………………………………….……………………….………....xi Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study………………………………………....................................1 Locating the Somali Diaspora Women’s Political Agency and Activism……………….………..5 Placing Gender in Migration Studies…………………………………………...............................8 Comparing Diasporas………………….………………………………………………………....11 Aims of the Study and Research Questions……………………………………...........................15 The Structure of the Thesis………………………………………………………………………19 Chapter 2: Sociopolitical Background of the Somali Diaspora and Literature Review of Diaspora and Immigrant Women’s Political Participations….......................................................23 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….…...23 Overview of the Social Political History of Somalia -Islam in the Somalia Context………..…..23 Somali Social Organization and Clan Identity………………......………………………………26 Civil War and the Mass Exodus……………………………………………………………........29 Somali Community in Minneapolis……………………………..……………………………….31 Somali Diaspora in London………………………………………………………………...........33 Trends in the Research of the Diaspora and Immigrant Political Integration and Transnationalism 36 Literature on Immigrant Women and Political Participation……………...…………………….38 v Chapter 3: Theoretical Framework………………………………………………………………43 Introduction………….…………………………………………………………………………..43 Postcolonial Feminism………………………………………………..........................................43 Transnational Feminism ………………………………..………………………………………44 Islamic Feminism………….……………………………………….............................................47 Female Religio-Cultural Approach………………………………………………………………49 Intersectionality Theory………………………………………………………………………….53 Social Capital…………………………………………………………………………………….54 Defining Diaspora……………………………………………………………………………….57 Diaspora and the Dangers of Groupism…………………………………………………………60 Diasporas’ Dual Centrality………………………………………………………………………62 The Somali Diaspora……………………………………………………………………………64 Chapter 4: Research Design and Methodology…………………………………………………66 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………..66 Feminist Approach for Diaspora Women Research…………………………………………….67 Selecting the Sites, Community and Gaining Access…………………………………………..69 Accessing Minneapolis…………………………………………………………………………72 Gaining Trust and Acceptability in London: Evoking my Transnational Family………………75 vi Methods, Sampling, and Data Collection………………………………………………………77 Participant Profiles………………………………………………………………………………80 Methodological Considerations for Research with Diaspora Participants………………………86 Interviews……………………………………………………………………………………….89 Data Analysis and Intersectionality Approach………………………………………………….92 Positioning the Research with Intersubjectivity and Reflexivity……………………………….95 Clan: An Uncomfortable Discussion……………………………………………………………97 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………99 Chapter 5: The Role of Social Capital in Somali Diaspora Women’s Political Participation…102 The Institutionalization of Islam in Britain and the United States……………………………...102 Impact of Religious Institution Involvement on the Political Participation of Ethnic Minorities 104 Religious Institutions’ Role in Immigrant Women’s Political Participation…………………...106 Social Bonding in the Somali Mosques: London Respondents………………………………...107 Mosque as Communal Center: London………………………………………………………...111 Early Struggles with Religious Rights: Minneapolis…………………………………………...114 Social Bonding in the Somali Mosques: Minneapolis Respondents…………………………...118 Mosque Sisters………………………………………………………………………………….120 Somali Community Organizations……………………………………………………………...123 vii Homey Feelings: Women and Community Organizations……………………………………..125 Community Organizations as Civic and Political Education Hubs…………………………….127 Justifying Lack of Civic Skill and Language.…………………………………………………..130 Women’s Networks: Informal Groups Create Political Socialization………………………….132 Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………………..135 Chapter 6: First Generation Respondents’ Political Participation in Minneapolis and London..139 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………..139 Transitioning to Democracy: First Generation…………………………………………………145 Conventional Politics in London……………………………………………………………….148 Unconventional Politics in London: Neighborhood Surveillance Against Police Brutality……152 Politics of Housing: London……………………………………………………………………155 Conventional Politics in Minneapolis: Politicized Community………………………………..160 Culture of Respect by First Generation: Everyone Votes………………………………………164 Unconventional Politics in Minneapolis: Protests……………………………………………...166 Another Type of Unconventional Political Participation in Minneapolis……………………...168 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………...173 Chapter 7: First Generations and Transnational Political